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Bulletin  106.  January,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


REVISED  OPINIONS 

OF  THE 

JAPANESE  PLUMS. 


Burbank.  Page  //. 


By  L.  H.  Bailey. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


O  RGA  N I Z  AT  ION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL, : 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 

Hon.  A.  D.  White,  ...  -  Trustee  of  the  University. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -  President  State  Agricultural  Society. 


Professor  I  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 
I.  P.  Roberts,  - 
E.  L.  Williams,  - 

H.  W.  Smith,  ..... 

ASSISTANTS. 

M.  V.  Slingerland,  .... 

G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  ----- 
E.  G.  Lodeman,  .... 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 

Horticulture. 

Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 

In  189J,  the  following  Bulletins  were  issued : 

84.  The  Recent  Apple  Failures  in  western  New  York. 

85.  Whey  Butter. 

86.  Spraying  of  Orchards. 

87.  The  Dwarf  Lima  Beans. 

88.  Early  Lamb  Raising. 

89.  Feeding  Pigs. 

90.  The  China  Asters. 

91.  Recent  Chrysanthemums. 

92.  Feeding  Fat  to  Cows 

93.  The  Cigar-Case-Bearer. 

94.  Damping  Off. 

95.  Winter  Muskmelons. 

96.  Forcing-House  Miscellanies. 

97.  Entomogenous  Fungi. 

98.  Cherries. 

99.  Blackberries. 

100.  Evaporated  Raspberries  in  western  New  York. 

101.  The  Spraying  of  Trees;  with  remarks  on  The  Canker-Worm. 

102.  General  Observations  Respecting  the  Care  of  Fruit  Trees  ;  Weeds. 

103.  Soil  Depletion  in  Respect  to  the  Care  of  Fruit  Trees. 

104.  Climbing  Cutworms  in  Western  New  York. 

105.  Tests  of  Cream  Separators. 


Cornki.Iv  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  i,  1896. 

Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture ,  Albany. 

Sir  :  The  following  account  of  the  Japanese  plums  is  sub¬ 
mitted  for  publication  under  the  Experiment  Station  Extension 
Bill  (Chapter  230,  Eaws  of  1895).  There  is  universal  interest  in 
the  Japanese  plums  amongst  the  fruit  growers  of  western  New 
York  and  it  therefore  seems  to  be  wise  to  publish  this  bulletin,  as 
a  sort  of  report  of  progress,  even  though  the  subject  is  very  much 
confused.  It  is  hoped  that  the  bulletin  may  tend  to  check  further 
confusion,  by  bringing  into  one  report  an  account  of  all  the  var¬ 
ieties  which  are  now  before  the  public.  In  making  these  studies 
of  Japanese  plums,  I  have  depended  quite  as  much  upon  the  in¬ 
formation  which  I  have  gathered  in  many  plantations  about  the 
state  as  I  have  upon  our  own  tests.  E-  H.  Baikey. 


The  illustrations  in  this  bulletin  show  the  fruits  full  size,  but 
the  reader  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  pictures  always  look 
smaller,  to  the  untrained  eye,  than  the  objects  which  they 
represent. 


i.  Abundance,  from  Daniel  Roberts ,  Keyport ,  bV.  J.  {See page  7. ) 


6.  Chase.  {See  page  13.) 


REVISED  OPINIONS  OF  THE  JAPANESE 

PLUMS. 


Two  years  ago  this  station  published  an  account  (Bulletin  62, 
“  The  Japanese  Plum  in  North  America  ”)  of  the  Japanese  plums 
as  they  were  then  known  in  this  country.  Our  knowledge  was 
very  fragmentary  and  imperfect  at  the  time,  and  it  was  not  ex¬ 
pected  that  final  conclusions  could  be  reached  respecting  most  of 
the  questions  which  were  uppermost  in  the  public  mind.  Yet  the 
confusion  in  which  the  whole  subject  lay  was  so  great  that  it  was 
thought  better  to  publish  such  conclusions  and  facts  as  we  pos¬ 
sessed  rather  than  to  allow  the  perplexities  and  the  entangle¬ 
ments  of  nomenclature  to  increase.  Many  of  the  varieties  which 
were  passing  under  indefinite  class  names  were  renamed,  and  the 
new  nomenclature  has  been  widely  adopted  by  nurserymen. 

The  interest  in  Japanese  plums  is  unabated,  and  it  now  seems 
to  be  wise  to  again  report  upon  the  subject,  adding  the  experiences 
of  the  two  past  seasons.  It  will  be  many  years  yet  before  the 
difficulties  of  nomenclature  can  be  wholly  cleared  up,  but  an  oc¬ 
casional  report  of  progress  may  be  expected  to  hasten  the  final 
outcome.  A  few  varieties  are  now  fairly  well  understood,  and 
descriptions  of  these  are  printed  in  large  type  in  this  paper.  I 
have  attempted  to  add  descriptions  of  all  other  varieties,  in  small¬ 
er  type,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  our  scattered  knowledge  to¬ 
gether  for  convenient  reference  ;  but  many  of  these  varieties  I  have 
not  yet  seen  in  fruit  and  I  cannot,  therefore,  vouch  for  the  ac¬ 
curacy  of  the  descriptions. 

In  my  former  report,  I  said  that  “altogether,  the  Japanese 
plums  constitute  the  most  important  type  of  fruit  introduced  into 
North  America  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  they 
should  receive  careful  tests  in  all  parts  of  the  country.”  Iam 
now  more  fully  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  statement  than  I 
was  at  that  time  ;  but  some  persons  seem  to  have  read  it  so  care¬ 
lessly  as  to  have  obtained  the  idea  that  I  recommend  the  Japanese 


6 


Bulletin  106. 


plums  as  superior  to  the  old  domestica  or  European  types  and  to 
the  natives.  The  latter  classes  were  already  well  established  a 
quarter  century  ago,  when  the  Japanese  sorts  first  came  into  the 
country,  and  their  value  is  not  lessened  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Japanese  type.  Wherever  the  common  domestica  plums  will  suc¬ 
ceed,  they  are  still  the  most  valuable  types,  but  some  of  the  Jap¬ 
anese  sorts  can  be  added  for  variety  with  profit.  The  Japanese 
type  is  adapted  to  a  much  wider  range  of  our  country  than  the 
domestica  plums  are,  and  they  introduce  certain  features  which 
are  invaluable  everywhere.  The  peculiarly  desirable  features 
presented  by  many  of  the  Japanese  plums,  in  various  degrees,  are 
earliness,  great  productiveness,  almost  complete  freedom,  so  far, 
from  black-knot  and  leaf-blight,  long- keeping  qualities  and  beauty 
of  fruit.  In  quality  they  are  generally  inferior  to  the  domes- 
ticas,  although  several  of  them  compare  favorably  in  this  re¬ 
spect  with  the. Lombard.  The  only  other  foreign  species  of  fruit 
which  has  been  lately  introduced  into  this  country  and  which  ap¬ 
proaches  the  Japanese  plums  in  importance,  is  the  kaki  or  Jap¬ 
anese  persimmon  ;  but  this  fruit  is  confined  to  the  fig  belt,  whilst 
the  plum  thrives  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf.  A  third  Japanese 
fruit — introduced  over  a  quarter  century  ago — the  Japanese  pear, 
is  also  important  and  a  report  on  it  may  be  expected  from  this 
station  within  the  present  year. 

It  is  yet  too  early,  in  my  judgment,  to  recommend  the  exten¬ 
sive  planting  of  the  Japanese  plums  in  this  state,  yet  such  varie¬ 
ties  as  Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank,  and  Chase  seem  to  be 
safe  to  plant ;  and  to  this  lot  may  no  doubt  be  added,  as  a  second- 
choice  list,  Georgeson,  Maru,  Chabot,  Ogon,  Berckmans,  Sat- 
suma.  For  very  early,  we  might  add  Berger  and  Yosebe,  and 
Willard.  The  two  first  are  very  small,  and  the  last  is  very  poor 
in  quality.  The  experiences  of  one  or  two  more  seasons  may 
modify  this  list  considerably,  but  it  represents  the  best  informa¬ 
tion  which  I  possess  at  the  present  moment,  for  New  York. 

Those  who  desire  a  fuller  exposition  of  the  history  and  char¬ 
acteristics  of  the  Japanese  plums,  may  consult  our  Bulletin  62*. 

*  The  following  additional  historical  notes  may  be  added :  D.  E.  Hough, 
who  first  received  the  Japanese  plums  in  this  country,  had  a  small  nursery  in 
Vacaville,  California,  about  1870  to  1875.  Professor  Wickson  writes  :  “  Mr. 


Japanese  Peums. 


7 


It  may  be  said  that  the  fear  expressed  in  that  bulletin  that  these 
plums  may  be  found  to  bloom  too  early  for  safe  cultivation  in 
western  New  York,  has  proved  to  be  unfounded.  Farther  south, 
however,  and  even  in  Ohio  and  Indiana,  the  habitual  early  bloom 
of  some  varieties  renders  them  unsafe.  The  winters  are  more 
uniform  in  character  here  than  they  are  farther  south,  and  the 
“  warm  spells  ”  of  early  spring  are  rarely  pronounced  enough  to 
start  the  blossoms.  It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  many  large 
bodies  of  water  in  and  about  western  New  York  exert  a  consider¬ 
able  influence  in  retarding  the  fitful  variations  of  early  spring.  I 
have  yet  to  hear  of  any  serious  loss  of  Japanese  plums  through 
late  spring  frosts.  There  was  an  abundant  crop  of  them  in  many 
parts  of  western  New  York  in  1895,  notwithstanding  the  hard 
frosts  of  May. 

Abundance  (. Lovett ,  Catalogue ,  1888).  Figs.  1,  2. 

Botan,  of  some. 

Medium  to  large,  globular  to  globular-oblong,  generally  with  a 
distinct  but  minute  point  at  the  apex,  often  unequal-sided  ;  stem 
y  in.  long  ;  under-color  yellow,  overlaid  with  coppery  red  or  with 
very  bright  pink-red  on  the  exposed  side,  in  well-colored  speci¬ 
mens  the  entire  surface  reddened  and  the  under-color  almost  com¬ 
pletely  obscured  or  showing  through  only  in  dots  and  small  flaky 
patches;  flesh  firm,  yet  rather  elastic  and  very  juicy,  sometimes 

Hough  was  a  very  expert  budder  and  budded  stock  for  others  as  well  as  on 
his  own  account.  He  was  quite  given  to  roving  from  place  to  place  and 
turned  over  his  acquisitions  to  other  parties.  He  seems  to  have  pulled  up 
stakes  in  Vaca  valley  between  his  enlistment  of  the  U.  S.  officer  in  Japan  in 
getting  the  trees,  and  the  arrival  of  the  trees  in  San  Francisco,  and  therefore 
he  turned  over  the  stock  to  John  Kelsey.  D.  E.  Hough  died  about  twelve 
years  ago.” 

Mr.  Burbank  wrote  me  as  follows,  in  1894,  respecting  his  first  importation  : 
“My  collector  whom  I  sent  to  southern  Japan  about  10  years  ago  for  the 
Satsuma — of  which,  two  years  before,  I  had  found  a  description  in  a  book  in 
the  Mercantile  Library  of  San  Francisco,  written  by  a  sailor — sent  me  about 
half  or  more  of  the  Japan  plums  now  in  general  cultivation.  All  collectors 
inform  me  that  there  were  no  nurseries  until  lately,  and  when  an  order  was 
given,  the  collector  secured  a  few  here  and  there,  wherever  they  could  be 
found.  This  accounts  for  the  confusion  of  the  names.” 


8 


Bulletin  106. 


slightly  stringy,  light  amber-yellow,  sweet  and  fully  as  good  as 
Lombard  when  well  ripened,  although  sometimes  having  a  slight 
musky  flavor,  the  skin  rather  sour  ;  cling. 

The  above  description  is  drawn  from  specimens  received  from 
Daniel  Roberts,  Keyport,  New  Jersey,  and  from  many  New  York 
samples  which  were  indistinguishable  from  Roberts’  specimens. 
I  wrote  to  Mr.  Lovett  for  fruits  from  the  original  tree  of  Abund¬ 
ance  ;  he  replied  that  the  tree  is  not  standing,  but  referred  me  to 

Mr.  Roberts,  whose  trees 
were  propagated  from 
the  original  stock.  Mr. 
.  Roberts  sent  me  excel¬ 
lent  samples,  some  of 
which  I  then  sent  to  Mr. 
Lovett  who  wrote  that 
the  fruit  “arrived  in 
perfect  condition,  and  is 
the  true  Abundance.” 
I  was  thus  particular 
about  the  matter,  be¬ 
cause  there  appear  to  be 
two  if  not  three  things 
sold  in  the  country  as 
Abundance  ;  or  else  the 
variety  is  wonderfully 
modified  by  climate  and 
local  conditions.  This 
exact  type  of  Abundance 
is  much  planted  in  west¬ 
ern  New  York.  It  is  the 
same  variety  which  I  described  and  figured  in  Bulletin  62. 

The  Abundance  makes  a  hardy,  thrifty,  upright-spreading  tree, 
(Fig.  2).  It  is  very  productive,  and  the  fruit  generally  needs 
thinning  to  bring  it  to  perfection.  Abundance  ripened  at  Ithaca 
in  1895  the  first  week  in  August,  over  two  weeks  ahead  of 
Lombard,  a  week  ahead  of  Burbank,  three  weeks  later  than 
Yosebe,  two  weeks  later  than  Willard,  and  a  week  to  ten  days 
later  than  Red  June. 


2. — Abundance  tree ,  6  years  old. 


Japanese  Peums. 


9 


I  do  not  know  if  the  Yellow-fleshed  Botan  is  identical  with 
Abundance.  This  name  was  given  by  P.  J.  Berckmans  to  distin¬ 
guish  a  variety  received  by  him  from  Luther  Burbank  under  the 
name  of  Botan.  There  were  two  varieties  in  the  batch,  and  the 
other,  with  a  lighter-colored  and  sweeter  flesh  was  named,  by  Mr. 
Berckmans,  Sweet  Botan.  This  latter  is  now  called  Berckmans. 
When  Mr.  Lovett  sent  out  his  Abundance,  it  was  pronounced  to 
be  identical  with  Yellow-fleshed  Botan  by  Mr.  Berckmans.  “  I 
have  seen  trees  that  were  received  from  Lovett,”  Mr.  Berckmans 
writes,  “whose  fruit  was  identical  with  Yellow-fleshed  Botan.” 
The  Yellow-fleshed  Botan  fruits  which  Mr.  Berckmans  has  sent 
me  several  times,  seem  to  differ  from  the  Abundance,  as  grown 
here,  in  the  yellower  color,  less  prominent  point  at  the  apex,  and 
shorter  stem,  but  these  differences  may  all  be  due  to  climate  or 
other  local  environments.  I  often  notice  that  plums  may  be 
shorter-stemmed  when  grown  in  the  south  than  when  grown  in  the 
north.  In  specimens  which  I  have  received  from  Berckmans,  the 
Yellow-fleshed  Botan  has  a  lighter-colored  flesh  than  the  Berck¬ 
mans.  We  have  trees  of  the  Yellow- fleshed  Botan  growing,  and 
shall  soon  be  able  to  determine  its  relationship  to  Abundance. 

Babcock  (. Bailey ,  Cornell  Bull.  62,  p.  19,  1894). 

Botankio  and  Botan,  of  some. 

‘  Medium  to  large  in.  diam.),  round-conical;  skin  yellow  overlaid 

with  purplish  red,  rather  thick  ;  flesh  deep  orange  and  solid,  a  little  coarse, 
sweet,  of  good  flavor  and  quality,  cling  ;  rather  late,  ripening  about  with  the 
Burbank,  or  about  a  week  earlier  than  Chabot  in  the  south. 

“Imported  in  1885  by  Luther  Burbank.  Now  named  for  Col.  B-  F.  Bab¬ 
cock,  a  well-known  nurseryman  of  Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  and  among  the 
first  to  grow  and  recommend  the  variety.  * ' — Bullelin  62. 

I  have  never  seen  a  fruit  which  I  could  refer  to  this  variety.  I  substituted 
the  name  Babcock  for  the  loosely  applied  Botankio,  drawing  my  description 
very  largely  from  notes  furnished  me  by  Colonel  Babcock.  Our  own  variety 
bought  as  Botankio  turns  out  to  be  Abundance. 

Bailey  {J.  L.  Normand ,  Catalogue ,  189 /). 

“  Large,  nearly  globular,  with  only  a  slight  tendency  «to  become  conical ; 
ground-color  rich  orange,  overspread  with  light  and  bright  cherry  red,  and 
showing  many  minute  orange  dots ;  flesh  thick  and  melting,  yellow,  of  ex¬ 
cellent  quality,  cling.  Tree  strong  and  upright,  productive.  Closely  related 
to  Burbank,  but  rounder  and  mostly  larger,  and  a  week  or  more  later. 

“  Imported  by  J.  L.  Normand,  Marksville,  Louisiana,  and  by  him  named 


IO 


Bulletin  106. 


and  introduced  in  1891.  Figured  in  American  Gardening,  xiii.  (1892),  p.  700. 
There  appears  to  be  another  Bailey  plum  of  the  domestica  type.  I  know  it 
only  from  a  plate  made  by  Dewey  of  Rochester  and  who  declares  that  it 
‘  has  not  failed  to  bear  for  twenty-five  successive  years.’  The  Rochester 
Lithographing  Co.,  successors  to  Dewey,  write  me  that  this  plate  was  in 
Dewey’s  stock  before  1886,  but  that  they  know  nothing  further  about  it.” — 
Bulletin  62. 

I  have  not  yet  fruited  this  variety,  but  I  have  received  it  from  several 
sources.  Mr.  Berckmans  regards  it  as  identical  with  Chabot.  It  is  also  re¬ 
markably  like  the  Chase,  and  Hoyo  Smomo.  It  is  possible  that  all  these 
four  names  belong  to  the  same  plum.  It  is  evidently  a  good  plum,  whatever 
its  proper  name  may  be  found  to  be. 

Berckmans  ( Bailey ,  Cornell  Bull.  62 ,  p.  20 ,  189P). 

True  Sweet  Botan. 

Sweet  Botan. 

White-fleshed  Botan. 

Botan,  of  some. 

Medium  (or  slightly  above  if  thinned),  broadly  and  obtusely 
conical  and  somewhat  angular  in  cross-section ;  dull  deep  blood 
red  if  ripened  in  the  sun,  sometimes  with  yellowish  patches  on  the 
shaded  side  ;  flesh  very  sweet,  moderately  juicy  or  dry  ;  cling  or 
semi-cling  ;  ripens  with  Abundance  or  just  ahead  of  it.  Becomes 
too  dry  when  very  ripe. 

Introduced  by  Tuther  Burbank  in  1887,  from  imported  stock. 
The  variety  does  not  appear  to  be  a  true  Botan,  and  its  nomen¬ 
clature  is  so  confused  and  indefinite  that  I  renamed  it  for  Mr. 
Berckmans,  who,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  variety  which  was 
also  received  under  the  name  of  Botan  (see  remarks  on  Yellow- 
fleshed  Botan,  under  Abundance),  called  it  White-fleshed  Botan. 
Mr.  Berckmans  considers  it  poor  in  quality,  but  as  it  is  grown  in 
the  north  it  compares  well  with  Abundance  ;  and  even  the  speci¬ 
mens  which  Mr.  Berckmans  has  sent  me  seem  to  me  to  be  superior 
in  quality  to  the  Abundance  which  he  has  sent.  Deeper  and 
duller  red  than  Abundance,  lacks  the  point  characteristic  of  that 
variety,  and  the  flesh  is  much  drier.  Very  productive.  Figured 
in  Bulletin  62. 

Berger  ( Munson  ;  Bailey  Cornell  Bull.  62,  p.  20 ,  1894) • 

Fruit  very  small  and  globular,  bright  uniform  red,  with  a  firm, 


Japanese  Peums- 


i  i 

meaty  and  sweet  yellow  flesh  and  a  very  small  free  stone,  ripen¬ 
ing  the  middle  of  July  in  New  York. 

There  has  been  much  confusion  respecting  this  plum.  Mr. 
Berckmans  once  sent  it  to  me  without  a  name,  saying  that 
it  came  from  H.  H.  Berger  &  Co.,  of  San  Francisco,  as  Red 
Nagate.  N.  S.  Platt  sent  it  from  Connecticut  as  Satsuma,  the 
name  under  which  it  was  received  from  Berger.  It  came  from 
the  south  (also  originally  from  Berger)  as  Shiro  Smomo.  I  also 
have  it  from  western  New  York,  unnamed.  T.  V.  Munson, 
Texas,  sent  specimens  which  he  called  the  Berger,  and  I  adopted 
his  name  and  published  it  in  Bulletin  62.  He  writes  as  follows 
of  it  :  “The  Berger  plum  is  an  upright,  cherry-like  tree.  It 
bears  a  purple  fruit  about  the  size  of  the  Black  Tartarian  cherry, 
with  meaty  flesh,  nearly  free  stone  which  is  as  small  as  the  pit  of 
the  common  Black  Morello  cherry  and  much  the  same  shape.” 
It  falls  from  the  tree  as  soon  as  ripe,  leaving  the  stem  on  the  tree. 
An  interesting  little  fruit  for  the  home  garden,  but  too  small  for 
market.  There  is  a  picture  of  it  in  Bulletin  62.  See  Yosebe. 

Blood  :  See  Satsuma, 

Blood  Plum  No.  3. 

“Fruit  somewhat  smaller  than  Satsuma,  flesh  very  deep  red  and  juicy, 
sweet ;  middle  of  July  ;  tree  of  very  open  straggling  growth.” — P.  J.  Berck¬ 
mans,  Catalogue ,  1895. 

Blood  Plum  No.  4. 

“This  corresponds  with  the  description  of  Honsmomo  of  the  Agricultural 
Bureau  of  Tokio.  Fruit  medium,  dark  red  flesh  ;  July  roth  to  25th  ;  tree  of 
erect  growth.” — P.  J.  Berckmans ,  Catalogue ,  1895. 

Botan  :  See  Abundance,  Babcock,  Berckmans,  Willard.  ' 
BoTankio  :  See  Abundance  and  Babcock. 

Burbank  (  Van  Deman ,  Kept.  Dept.  Agric.  1891 ,  p.  392). 

Fig.  on  title  page  and  Nos.  3  and  4. 

Medium,  to  rather  large  upon  thinned  trees,  conical  to  oblong 
in  form,  the  point  generally  blunt  ;  ground-color  orange-yellow, 
mostly  rather  thinly  overlaid  with  red  and  showing  many  yellow 
dots,  often  more  or  less  marbled,  in  the  sun  becoming  rather 
dense  red  ;  flesh  firm  and  meaty,  yellow,  not  stringy,  rich  and 
sugary  ;  cling.  As  compared  with  Abundance,  it  is  a  week  or 
two  later,  more  oblong  and  lacking  the  peculiar  point  of  Abund¬ 
ance,  flesh  firmer  and  .not  inclined  to  be  stringy,  and  sweeter, 
lacking  the  slight  muskiness  of  Abundance.  Burbank  is  shaded 


12 


Bulletin  106. 


and  splashed  with  dull  maroon -red  and  is  much  spotted,  the  yel- 

Abundance  is  a  vivid  pink- 
red,  the  yellow  ground 
conspicuous  only  on  the 
shaded  side.  In  1895,  the 
Burbank  on  our  grounds 
was  less  than  a  week  later 
than  Abundance,  but  the 
very  dry  season  may  have 
ripened  it  ahead  of  its 
usual  season. 

A  specimen  of  the  Bur¬ 
bank  sent  by  Luther  Bur¬ 
bank,  Santa  Rosa,  Cal.,  is 
shown  natural  size  in  Fig. 
3.  It  is  very  unlike  the 
Burbank  as  grown  in  the 
east.  The  size  is  greater, 
and  the  color  a  deep  claret  red  with  minute  golden  dots.  The 
flesh  was  very  thick,  firm  and  meaty,  and  of  excellent  quality. 

The  variety 
is  a  most 
sprawling, 
flat-topped  or 
even  drooping 
grower  (Fig. 

4) ;  and  this 
habit  distin¬ 
guishes  the 
variety  from 
all  other  Jap¬ 
anese  plums 
which  we 
have  grown. 

young,  to  keep  it  within  bounds.  The  fruit  generally  needs 
thinning,  for  the  tree  is  enormously  productive. 

The  Burbank  was  imported  by  Luther  Burbank,  Santa  Rosa, 
California,  late  in  1885,  and  named  for  him  by  H.  F-  VanDeman. 


The  tree  should  probably  be  headed-in  when 


low  under-color  being  conspicuous. 


3.  —Burbank.  From  Luther  Burbank , 
Santa  Rosa,  Cal. 


Japanese  Peums. 


13 


See  Rept.  Dept.  Agr.  1891,  p.  392,  where  it  is  also  given  a  good 
colored  plate.  Generally  introduced  in  1890. 

The  Russian  plum  20  M,  sent  me  by  Professor  Budd,  is  indis¬ 
tinguishable  from  Burbank.  We  have  two  trees  of  it,  and  they 
bore  two  or  three  bushels  of  plums  this  year. 

Burbank  No.  1. 

Said  to  resemble  Berckmans.  I  do  not  know  it. 

Burbank  No.  2. 

‘‘Described  as  of  medium  size,  regular  and  globular  in  shape,  yellow  over¬ 
spread  with  purplish  carmine,  with  a  yellow  very  juicy  flesh  which  is  fine¬ 
grained  and  of  good  quality  ;  pit  nearly  free.  Very  early.  This  variety  is 
not  reported  in  any  recent  tests.” — Bulletin  62. 

‘‘  Burbank  No.  2,  from  Berckmans,  fruited  in  1892  and  since  ;  no  apparent 
difference  between  it  and  our  Abundance.” — Stark  Bros.,  1895. 

Burbank  No.  3  :  see  Late  Blood. 

Burbank  No.  4 :  see  Heikes. 

Burbank  No.  ii. 

I  know  this  only  from  specimens  received  the  past  summer  from  Stark 
Bros.,  Louisiana,  Missouri.  It  looks  very  much  like  Willard  Freestone  or 
very  nearly  so.  Drops  easily.  Season  of  Red  June,  and  said  by  Stark  Bros, 
to  be  not  worth  propagating. 

Chabot  (Burbank ).  Fig.  5. 

Medium  to  large  (size  of  Burbank),  oblong-conical ;  under-color 
orange,  deeply  overlaid  with  light  cherry-red,  the  sunny  side  dark 
red,  and  many  minute  golden  dots  showing  through  the  red  over¬ 
color  ;  flesh  yellow,  rather  soft,  not  stringy,  sweet  and  of  excellent 
quality,  with  no  almond  flavor  ;  skin  scarcely  sour  ;  cling.  An 
excellent  plum,  ripening  early  in  September  in  this  latitude. 

Imported  from  Japan  by  Mr.  Chabot,  of  Berkeley,  California, 
but  introduced  to  the  trade  by  Luther  Burbank  in  1 886.  See  Chase. 

Chabot  Beood. 

‘‘A  novel  and  remarkable  addition  to  our  fruits.  The  size  is  medium, 
stem  very  short,  and  of  a  brick  red  or  cinnabar  color  ;  flesh  firm,  fine  brick 
red  color;  very  juicy  and  sweet,  and  with  a  peculiar  aromatic  flavor.” — 
Catalogue  California  Nursery  Co.,  Fourth  Edition  ( recent :  no  date). 

Chase  (R.  G.  Chase  Co.,  Catalogue,  1893).  Fig  6. 

Hattonkin,  of  some. 

Yellow  Japan,  of  some. 

Medium  to  large,  heart-shaped  ;  under-color  yellow  (like  Abun¬ 
dance),  deeply  overlaid  with  dull  red  and  showing  manyf golden 


14 


Bulletin  106. 


dots,  finally  becoming  uniformly  dull  red  all  over ;  bloom 
thick;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  rather  juicy,  sweet  and  good;  skin 
rather  tough  ;  cling.  The  coloring  is  that  of  the  Burbank,  but 
the  plum  is  more  pointed  and  it  is  two  or  three  weeks  later,  rip¬ 
ening  in  this  latitude  the  first  or  second  week  in  September. 

This  very  excellent  plum  was  bought  by  the  Chases  for  Abun- 


5. — Chabot. 


dance,  but  is  about  a  month  later  than  that  variety.  It  is  of  the 
Chabot  type  and  may  not  be  distinct  (see  remarks  under  Bailey). 
The  tree  is  a  strong  upright-spreading  grower,  and  productive. 
It  is  considerably  disseminated  in  New  York  under  the  name  of 
Yellow  Japan,  although  it  is  a*  red  plum.  .  Chase  Co.  speaks  of 
the  tree  as  “a  good  grower  ”  and  blooming  “  two  weeks  later 
than  Abundance,  thus  escaping  the  spring  frosts.” 

Delaware  ( Burbank ,  Catalogue ,  189J  ) 

“  Roundish,  conical,  medium  in  size,  purplish  bronze  in  color  with  a  white 
bloom;  flesh  wine-color,  juicy,  combining  many  flavors.  Trees  semi-dwarf, 


Japanese  Plums. 


15 


very  productive.  Catalogued  amongst  Luther  Burbank’s  novelties,  1893. 
Said  to  be  a  cross  of  Satsuma  and  Kelsey.” — Bulletin  62. 

Douglas  {R.  H.  Price ,  Bull.  32 ,  Texas  Exp .  Sta.  p.  488 ,  1894). 

Munson,  of  Bailey,  Bull.  62,  p.  27. 

Hytankayo,  of  Whitaker. 

Hattankio,  of  some. 

“Size  rather  large,  conical,  yellow  with  purple  tinge;  skin  tough  ;  flesh 
firm,  flavor  very  good.  Tree  upright  vigorous  grower,  hardy  and  very  pro¬ 
ductive.  Nearly  free  from  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi.” — Dr.  Whitaker , 
Tyler,  Texas ,  in  Bull.  32,  Texas  Exp.  Sta. 

Imported  and  introduced  by  Dr.  Whitaker.  The  name  Munson  which  I 
proposed  for  this  plum  in  Bulletin  62,  is  antedated  by  another  Munson  plum 
of  the  Chickasaw  type. 

Earliest  of  All  {Stark  Bros.) 

Yosebe,  of  some. 

“  Small  to  medium,  globular ;  color  a  solid  dark  red;  quality  good;  pit 
small,  free.  Fully  ten  days  earlier  than  Red  June.  It  drops  as  soon  as  col¬ 
ored.  Our  idea  in  growing  this  variety  for  market  would  be  to  shake  the 
fruit  on  a  sheet  and  market  in  quart  berry  boxes.  Very  productive.  Leaf 
very  narrow,  conduplicated  and  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Red  June.” — 
Stark  Bros.  See  Uchi-Beni. 

Engre. 

Fruit  small,  globular,  red,  almost  exactly  like  Willard  and  of  same  season; 
poor.  It  seems  to  differ  from  Willard  in  foliage,  however.  The  leaves  are 
short  and  elliptic,  whilst  those  of  Willard  are  long  and  obovate.  Little 
known.  Two  varieties  seem  to  be  passing  under  this  name. 

Excelsior  {Cherokee  Nursery  Co.) 

“A  seedling  of  the  Kelsey.  Fruit  large,  round,  1 1/2  inches  in  diameter; 
color  reddish  purple,  with  heavy  blue  bloom  ;  flesh  sweet,  juicy,  melting 
and  of  excellent  quality.  Ripens  early  in  June.  The  trees  of  this  variety 
had  more  fruit  last  year  than  any  other  variety,  either  native  or  foreign.  It 
is  undoubtedly  a  cross  between  the  Kelsey  and  some  variety  of  the  Chicka¬ 
saw  type.  The  tree  is  a  very  strong  grower,  symmetrical  and  handsome  ;  a 
valuable  variety.” — Catalogue ,  Cherokee  Nursery  Co.,  Way  cross,  Ga. 

The  fruits  which  I  have  seen  were  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  round- 
conical,  with  a  distinct  small  sharp  point ;  stem  slender  ;  color  very  bright 
dark  red  with  many  minute  gold  dots  ;  flesh  soft  and  watery,  sweet ;  cling. 
The  fruit  and  foliage  suggest  only  the  Wild  Goose  type  {Prunus  hortulana), 
but  the  pit  suggests  Kelsey. 

Furugiya. 

Name  given,  without  description  or  comment,  by  J.  L.  Normand,  Marks- 
ville,  La.,  in  “Special  Circular  of  New  Japan  Plums  and  Rare  Novelties,” 
1895-6. 


i6 


Bulletin  106. 


Georgeson  ( Bailey ,  Cornell  Bulletin  62 ,  p.  2j)  Figs.  7  and  8. 

Hattonkin,  No.  1. 

Hattonkin,  of  some. 

Hattankio,  of  some. 

Medium  in  size,  or  fairly  large  when  thinned,  variable  in  shape 


7. — Georgeson. 


but  usually  irregularly  globular  with  a  flattened  apex  but  some¬ 
times  obscurely  conical  ;  color  a  clear  rich  uniform  yellow,  with  a 
thin  white  bloom  and  minute  whitish  dots  in  the  skin  ;  flesh  very 
firm,  not  juicy  nor  stringy,  sweet  and  good;  skin  sour  ;  strong 
clingstone.  Ripe  at  Ithaca  in  1895  the  last  days  of  August  and 
first  days  of  September,  one  or  two  weeks  later  than  Burbank.  I 
had  it  from  Niagara  County,  New  York,  however,  early  in  August. 
A  very  long  keeper.  Fairly  productive. 

Tree  (Fig.  8)  a  sprawling,  forked  grower,  intermediate  in  form 
between  Abundance  and  Burbank.  The  variety  is  well  distribut- 


Japanese  Plums. 


i7 


ed  in  western  New  York,  under  a  variety  of  names.  Imported 
by  H.  H.  Berger  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  and  brought  to  notice 
chiefly  by  J.  F.  Normand,  Marksville,  Fa. 

Golden  (. Burbank  Catalogue ,  1893). 

Said  to  be  a  cross  of  Robinson  (a  Chickasaw)  and  Kelsey. 

Hale  ( G .  H.  and  J.  H.  Hale ,  1895). 

“J”,  of  Burbank. 

Prolific,  of  Burbank. 

A  very  handsome  large  round-cordate  plum,  usually  lop-sided  ;  orange, 
thinly  overlaid  with 
mottled  red,  so  as 
to  have  a  yellow¬ 
ish  red  appearance, 
or,  in  well  colored 
specimens,  deep 
cherry -red  with 
yellow  specks; 
flesh  yellow,  soft 
and  juicy  (yet  a 
good  keeper),  not 
stringy,  with  a 
very  delicious 
slightly  acid  peachy 
flavor ;  skin  some¬ 
what  sour ;  cling. 

Very  late.  I  know 
the  fruit  only  from 

specimens  sent  at  .  8. — Georgeson ,  6  years  old. 

two  or  three  differ¬ 
ent  times  by  Luther  Burbank.  To  my  taste,  these  specimens  have  been 
the  best  in  quality  of  all  Japanese  plums,  although  Mr.  Burbank  regards  it 
as  inferior  in  this  respect  to  Wickson  (which  see).  Seedling  of  Satsuma. 

HaTTankio  :  see  Douglas,  Georgeson,  Kerr. 

HaTTONKIn  No.  i  :  see  Georgeson. 

HaTTONkin  No.  2  :  see  Kerr. 

Heikes  ( Bailey ,  Cornell  Bulletin  62 ,  ft.  23,  1894.'). 

Burbank  No.  4. 

Much  like  Late  Blood,  but  rather  more  flattened  on  the  ends,  or  oblate , 
mostly  darker  in  color,  the  flesh  acid.  Little  known. 

Named  for  W.  F.  Heikes,  of  the  Huntsville  Nurseries,  Huntsville,  Ala. 


i8 


Bulletin  106. 


Housmomo. 

Name  inserted  in  “Special  Circular”  (1895-6)  by  J.  L.  Normand,  without 
note  or  comment.  (Misprint  for  Honsmomo?  See  Blood  No.  4). 

Hoyo  Smomo. 

Apparently  identical  with  Bailey,  which  see. 

Hytankayo  :  see  Douglas. 

Juicy  ( Burbank ,  Catalogue ,  1893). 

Cross  of  Robinson  (a  Chickasaw  plum)  and  Kelsey. 

L 

Kelsey  (  W.  P.  Hammon  &  Co.,  Oakland ,  Cal.'). 

Very  large  (2-3  in.  diam.)  and  long-pointed,  tapering  gradually 
from  a  heart-shaped  base,  usually  somewhat  lop-sided,  with  a 
deep  furrow-like  suture ;  color  bright  red-purple  on  a  yellow 
ground,  more  or  less  marked  with  dots,  very  showy  ;  flesh  light 
yellow  and  rather  firm,  rich  and  pleasant  in  flavor,  free  or  only 
slightly  clinging  to  the  small  stone,  more  or  less  hollow  above 
the  pit. 

The  first  Japanese  plum  introduced  into  this  country,  but  it  did 
not  attract  much  attention  outside  of  California  until  ten  or  twelve 
years  ago.  It  was  figured  by  Mr.  Van  Deman  in  Dept,  of  Agr. 
Rept.  for  1886,  plate  X.,  and  again  (colored)  in  Report  for  1887, 
plate  I.  ;  in  Wickson’s  California  Fruits,  p.  351  ;  and  in  my  Bul¬ 
letin  62.  Its  behavior  is  not  uniform  in  different  years.  F.  M. 
Ramsey,  of  Lampasas,  Texas,  writes  me  that  in  1888,  his  Kelsey 
ripened  in  September,  in  1889  in  July,  and  in  1890  in  June.  L. 
A.  Berckmans,  Georgia,  says*  that  in  1887  the  Kelsey  did  not 
mature  until  October  1st ;  in  1889  it  ripened  in  July;  in  1890  it 
“  began  to  ripen  the  latter  part  of  July  and  continued  for  eight 
weeks,”  and  on  October  1st  perfectly  green  specimens  were  on  the 
trees.  It  has  a  more  or  less  prolonged  or  indefinite  season  of 
bloom.  Luther  Burbank  (Santa  Rosa,  Cal.)  writes  :  “  Kelsey 

blooms  here  all  winter,  from  December  to  March.”  In  California 
the  tree  is  said  to  be  nearly  evergreen. 

There  are  still  the  most  conflicting  reports  respecting  the  hard¬ 
iness  of  Kelsey.  Some  persons  declare  that  it  fruits  in  New  York, 
but  every  report,  when  run  down,  shows  that  the  party  is  mis¬ 
taken  in  the  variety.  The  farthest  north  that  I  have  known 


*Proc.  14th  meeting,  Ga.  Hort.  Soc.  (1889)  52. 


Japanese:  Plums. 


19 


Kelsey  to  fruit  is  in  extreme  southern  Delaware.  J.  Van  Lindley 
says*  that  in  1893  in  North  Carolina  his  Kelsey  trees  “were 
loaded  with  fruit,  large  and  fine,  quality  of  the  very  best.”  It 
ripened  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  August.  “  The  Kelsey,”  he 
continues,  “  stands  at  the  head  for  canning  and  preserving,  and 
sells  in  any  market  at  fancy  prices,  but  it  comes  into  competition 
with  other  fruits  grown  north.”  Kelsey  has  been  killed  by  cold 
in  northern  Texas  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  trees  are  said  to  have 
come  through  the  winter  with  little  injury  in  Iowa.  My  first  ex¬ 
perience  with  the  Kelsey  was  at  Lansing,  Michigan,  where  the 
trees  killed  to  the  snow  line  the  first  winter.  Professor  Tamari, 
of  Tokio,  says  that  the  variety  is  too  tender  for  the  northern  plum 
sections  of  Japan.  Mr.  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  formerly  pomologist 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  wrote  me  upon  the  hardiness  of 
Kelsey,  in  1892,  as  follows  :  “  My  present  opinion  is  that  it  is 

about  as  hardy  as  the  fig.  All  reliable  information  that  has  come 
to  this  office  up  to  this  date  is  to  the  effect  that  it  is  not  suitable 
to  the  northern  states  because  of  its  tenderness.  I  know  from 
personal  observation  that  between  here  [Washington]  and  Balti¬ 
more  trees  have  been  seriously  injured  by  winter-killing.  Occa¬ 
sionally  I  have  heard  of  Kelsey  plum  trees  withstanding  severe 
cold,  but  in  every  case  yet  followed  up,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
trees  were  not  correctly  named.”  I  am  inclined  to  think,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  Kelsey  will  sometimes  endure  a  New  York  winter 
if  the  wood  has  been  well  ripened  ;  but  I  doubt  if  it  will  ever  bear 
in  this  State. 

The  following  correspondence  to  the  California  Fruit  Grower 
(Sept.  14,  1885)  stiU  further  explains  the  vagaries  of  the  Kelsey: 

“  The  Kelsey  Japan  plum  is  surely  erratic  in  disposition, — more 
or  less  reliable. 

“  My  experience  teaches  me,  however,  that  it  bears  much  more 
regularly  when  in  close  proximity  to  some  other  variety  of  plum. 

“  This  is  very  marked,  not  only  in  outside  rows,  but  in  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  block.  Wherever  I  have  an  odd  tree  of  Satsuma,  im¬ 
mediately  surrounding  that  tree  the  Kelseys  bear  well. 

‘  ‘  It  does  better  with  very  little  pruning. 


*  Thirteenth  Rep.  N.  Car.  Hort.  Soc.  (1893)  20. 


20 


Bulletin  106. 


“  It  must  be  sprayed  with  a  good  fungicide  once  or  twice  a 
year  to  keep  in  check  the  shot-hole  fungus. 

“It  succeeds  best  in  heavy,  moist  land,  and  preferably  in  the 
coast  or  bay  counties. 

‘  ‘  In  marketing  it,  great  care  must  be  taken  as  to  when  the 
fruit  is  picked.  Some  seasons  it  colors  much  more  than  others, 
hence  the  danger  of  waiting  for  color. 

“  I  pick  mine  the  very  hour  (if  possible)  that  the  slightest  color 
is  apparent.  They  will  color  up  afterwards  in  the  boxes  before 
they  reach  destination — referring,  of  course,  to  the  eastern 
markets. 

‘  ‘  My  trees  are  picked  over  seven  or  eight  times. 

“  When  the  fruit  sets  very  thickly  it  must  be  well  thinned. 

“The  prices  have  been  very  satisfactory  to  me.  I  am  well 
repaid  for  the  extra  labor,  the  fruit  netting  me  four  cents  to 
eight  cents  per  pound. 

“  Conditions  and  surroundings  vary  so  much  that  I  would  not 
advise  one  way  or  the  other.  Almost  any  variety  of  plum  or 
prune  could  be  grafted  on  Kelseys,  where  they  are  not  profitable. 
Why  not  use  Robe  de  Sargent,  especially  if  the  root  is  peach  ? 

“  A  double-worked  Robe  de  Sargent  tree  is  best,  as  it  makes  a 
larger  tree,  and  larger  fruit  as  well  as  more  of  it. 

“  It  will  not  unite  directly  on  the  peach,  as  is  generally  known, 
hence  the  suggestion  to  double  work,  using  the  Kelsey  on  peach 
root.  Leonard  Coates.” 

Napa,  Cal.,  September  9,  1895. 

George  S.  Higby,  Poway,  San  Diego  Co.,  California,  writes  as 
follows  of  the  Kelsey  :  “I  had  the  honor,  I  believe,  of  exhibit¬ 
ing  the  first  specimens  of  Kelsey  in  San  Diego  county.  The 
Kelsey  is  fast  becoming  a  popular  fruit  in  this  county,  and  is 
adapted  both  to  the  sea-coast  and  inland  valleys.  I  think  that  in 
the  near  future  it  may  take  a  position  equal  to  the  French  or  Cali¬ 
fornia  prime  as  a  dried  fruit.  A  well  ripened  Kelsey  has  very  few 
superiors.  ’  ’ 


KERR  (Bailey,  Cornell  Bulletin  62 ,  p.  25,  1894). 
Hattonkin  No.  2. 

Hattonkin,  of  Berckmans  and  others. 

‘  ‘  Medium  to  large,  generally  very  strongly  conical  with  a  deep 
suture;  color  orange-yellow,  with  a  creamy  bloom;  flesh  juicy 
and  sweet,  good  in  quality,  cling  ;  early. 


Japanese  Peums. 


21 


“An  excellent  variety,  but  not  tested  in  the  north.  It  varies 
considerably  in  shape,  even  on  the  same  tree,  occasional  speci¬ 
mens  occurring  without  the  point.  Mr.  Berckmans  writes  me 
that  in  1890  the  round  form  seemed  to  predominate,  while  in  1892 
the  pointed  or  normal  form  alone  was  produced.  Imported  from 
Japan  by  Frost  &  Burgess,  Riverside,  California.  Named  for  J. 
W.  Kerr,  of  Denton,  Maryland,  one  of  the  most  intelligent  plum 
growers  of  the  central  states.” — Bulletin  62. 

‘  ‘  Kerr  is  not  only  the  earliest  of  the  large-sized  plums,  but 
most  excellent  in  quality.  It  partakes  more  of  the  Green  Gage 
flavor  than  any  other  of  the  group.” — P.  J.  Berckmans ,  1895. 

Figured  in  Bulletin  62. 

Bate  Beood  ( Burbank ,  in  early  lists). 

Hale,  of  Bailey,  Bulletin  62. 

Burbank  No.  3. 

Medium  in  size,  globular  or  slightly  flattened,  scarcely  if  at  all  pointed, 
rather  light  bright  uniform  red  ;  flesh  red,  firm  and  sweet,  tightly  clinging 
to  the  pit. 

Imported  by  Ruther  Burbank  in  1885,  together  with  Heikes,  which  see. 
Mr.  Burbank  writes  me  that  he  disposed  of  this  and  No.  4  after  they  had 
fruited  in  the  nursery  row,  and  that  he  now  has  no  knowledge  of  them. 
Very  much  like  Satsuma,  but  a  few  days  later  and  appears  to  bloom  earlier  ; 
also  less  pointed,  and  somewhat  different  in  leaf.  Bittle  known. 

Bate  HaTTankio  ( Cherokee  Nursery  Co.,  Way  cross,  Ga .,  in  letter,  1894). 

“  Color  pale  orange  yellow,  heavily  covered  with  a  white  bloom.  Suture 
very  slight.  Flesh  dark  yellow,  very  firm  and  somewhat  dry  with  a  slight 
astringency.  Generally  of  poor  quality  and  irregular  shape.  Ripe  with  us 
June  15th  to  20th.” 

Bong  Fruit  {Burbank) . 

Very  small,  roundish  in  shape,  red,  early  and  said  to  be  a  shy  bearer. 
Thought  by  some  to  be  the  same  as  Engre.  Others  say  that  it  is  the  same  as 
Red  June.  Possibly  two  things  are  propagated  under  this  name.  Stark 
Bros,  write  of  it:  “Equally  small  or  smaller  than  your  cut  of  Berger  [in 
Bull.  62],  and  very  acrid.”  Imported  by  Ruther  Burbank  in  1885,  but  very 
little  known. 

Maru  (. Burbank .)  Fig.  9. 

Masu  and  Massu. 

Medium  in  size,  depressed-globular  with  an  obtuse  point ;  very 


22 


Bulletin  106. 


dark  uniform  maroon-red  with  numberless  minute  golden  dots; 
flesh  deep  yellow,  rather  soft,  with  a  musky  flavor  which  is  not 
disagreeable,  sweet,  but  quality  only  medium  ;  skin  sour  ;  cling 
to  half  cling.  Often  acid  in  flavor.  Season  of  Abundance.  Said 
to  be  very  hardy  in  bud. 


9. — Maru. 


Imported  by  kuther  Burbank  in  1885.  Maru  is  Japanese  for 

rou?id. 

Mikado. 

“  It  is  a  large,  golden  yellow  plum  when  ripe,  and  samples  measured  seven 
and  one-quarter  inches  in  circumference.  It  is  considered  now  as  the  most 


Japanese  Peums. 


23 


profitable  variety  that  is  propagated  in  the  valley,  ripening  early,  the  trees 
good  bearers  and  the  fruit  bringing  very  high  prices.  Last  season  they 
brought  as  high  as  $11  per  box  in  the  eastern  markets,  or  over  fifty  cents  a 
pound,  and  this  season  bringing  from  $5  to  $7  per  box.” — Vacaville  ( Cal .) 
Reporter ,  quoted  in  California  Fruit  Grower ,  xiii.  198  (Sept.  2,  1893). 

“A  very  large  plum,  of  greenish  yellow  color,  nearly  round,  very  little 
suture,  a  very  rapid  grower,  more  so  than  any  other.  This  is  the  most 
remarkable  of  all  plums  for  its  enormous  size,  beauty  and  good  quality.  It 
is  probably  the  largest  plum  in  existence  ;  ripens  fifteen  days  after  Yeddo. 
I  have  had  specimens  of  it  larger  than  any  Kelsey,  or  as  large  as  any  coni' 
mon-size  Elberta  peach.”— -J.  L.  Normand ,  Marksville,  La .,  Special  Circu¬ 
lar ,  1895-6. 

Munson:  See  Douglas. 

NagaTE  no  Botankyo. 

“  Early.”—/.  L.  Normand ,  Special  Circular ,  1895-6. 

Normand  (/.  L.  Normand ,  Catalogue ,  1891). 

Normand  Yellow. 

Normand’s  Japan. 

Medium  to  large,  obtusely  conical  with  a  heart-like  base  and  short  stem  ; 
color  clear  golden  yellow  ;  flesh  firm  and  meaty,  yellow,  of  high  quality  ; 
the  small  pit  free.  Very  prolific,  and  ripens  just  after  Berckmans  and 
Abundance.  Allied  to  Georgeson  and  Kerr  ;  less  conical  than  the  latter. 

Imported  by  J.  L.  Normand,  MarksviUe,  La.,  and  by  him  disseminated 
under  the  name  of  Normand’s  Japan  in  1891.  Figured  in  Bull.  62. 

October  PurpuE  {Burbank). 

A  very  large  black-purple  heart-like  plum,  with  no  splashes  of  lighter 
color;  flesh  amber-yellow,  red  beneath  the  skin,  very  juicy,  but  yet  firm, 
somewhat  stringy,  very  sweet  and  good;  skin  sour;  cling.  Very  late. 

Ogon. 

Fruits  medium  in  size,  flattened  at  the  ends  or  tomato-shaped, 
not  at  all  conical,  the  suture  prominent  ;  color  clear  lemon  with  a 
light  creamy  bloom  giving  the  fruit  a  whitish  appearance  ;  flesh 
thick  and  very  meaty,  not  juicy,  firm  and  keeping  long,  of  second 
or  third  quality,  entirely  free  from  the  stone.  Tree  only  moder¬ 
ately  productive  in  New  York,  or  in  some  regions  even  shy. 
Early,  ripening  in  New  York  from  late  July  to  the  middle  of  Au¬ 
gust.  Excellent  for  canning. 

Imported  by  H.  H.  Berger  &  Co.,  San  Francisco.  One  of  the 
best  known  varieties,  but  evidently  not  increasing  in  popularity 
in  this  state.  Figured  in  Bulletin  62. 


24 


Bulletin  106. 


O-Hatankyo. 

“  Said  to  be  early.”—/.  L.  Normand,  “  Special  Circular ,”  1895-6. 
Orient  ( Stark  Bros.,  Catalogue,  1895). 

Red  Nagate,  of  some. 

“  Large,  broadly  conical ;  red,  very  highly  colored  ;  flesh  yellow,  of  high 

quality.  Ripens 
soon  after  Burbank. 
Introduced  in  the 
fall  of  1893  by 
Stark  Bros.,  Louis¬ 
iana,  Mo.  Figured 
in  American  Gar¬ 
dening  xiv.  (1893), 
p.  363.” — Bulletin 
62. 

Possibly  the  same 
as  Chabot. 

Red  June 
{Stark  Bros., 
Catalogue, 1 8  93) . 
Figs.  10  and  1 1. 

Red  Nagate, 
of  some. 


Shiro-Smomo, 
of  some. 

1  ■  up 

Medium  to 
nearly  large  size, 
cordate  and  very 
prominently 
elongated  at  the 
apex,  the  suture 
deep,  generally 
lop-sided,  deep 
vermilion-red  all 
over,  with  a 
handsome 
bloom,  very 
showy;  flesh  light  lemon-yellow  or  whitish,  firm  and  moderately 
juicy,  not  stringy,  very  slightly  subacid  to  sweetish,  the  skin 
slightly  sour,  of  good  pleasant  quality  although  not  so  rich  as 
some;  cling  to  half  cling  ;  pit  small. 


10. — Red  June . 


Japanese:  Peums. 


25 


Avery  handsome  plum,  ripening  at  Ithaca  in  1895  from  July 
28  to  August  1st,  nearly  a  week  later  than  Willard,  and  a  week 
earlier  than  Abundance.  By  all  odds  the  best  Japanese  plum  rip¬ 
ening  before  the 
Abundance  which 
I  have  yet  tested. 

Tree  (Fig.  11)  up¬ 
right  -spreading, 
vigorous  and  hardy, 
about  as  productive 
with  us,  so  far,  as 
Abundance.  I 
thought  that  the 
quality  of  our  speci¬ 
mens  last  season 
were  nearly  or  quite 
equal  to  that  of 
Abundance. 

Imported  by  H. 

H.  Berger  &  Co., 

San  Francisco.  The 
nomenclature  of  the 
variety  here  de¬ 
scribed  is  much 
confused.  H.  H. 

Berger  &  Co.  write 
me  that  the  true  Japanese  Red  Nagate  has  red  flesh,  which  this 
has  not.  The  name  Red  Nagate  is  applied  to  such  different 
varieties,  and  there  is  such  an  absence  of  opinion  as  to  what  the 
true  Red  Nagate  is,  that  I  have  adopted  Red  June  as  the  only 
tenable  name. 

This  is  the  variety  to  which  the  name  Shiro  Smomo  is  oftenest 
applied,  but  it  is  neither  a  Sumomo  plum  nor  is  it  white  (Shiro 
means  white),  thus  affording  a  curious  instance  of  the  utter  con¬ 
fusion  of  the  American  application  of  the  names  of  the  Japanese 
plums.  Professor  Georgeson  tells  me  that  the  Shiro  Sumono  of 
the  Japanese  is  a  small  white  early  plum  with  yellow  flesh,  some¬ 
what  cling  and  of  medium  season.  I  do  not  know  if  it  occurs  in 


11. — Red  June ,  6  years  old. 


26 


Bulletin  106. 


this  country;  and  it  is  probably  not  worth  while  to  endeavor  to 
fit  the  name  to  any  variety.  The  Ogon  is  probably  the  nearest  to 
it  of  any  variety  in  this  list. 

Sagetsuna. 

Name  given  in  J.  L.  Normand’s  “  Special  Circular,”  1895-6,  without  com¬ 
ment. 

Satsuma. 

Blood. 

Yonemomo. 

Size  medium  to  rather  large,  broadly  conical  with  a  blunt, 
short  point,  suture  very  deep  ;  color  very  dark  and  dull  red 
all  over,  with  greenish  dots  and  an  under-color  of  brown  red  ; 
flesh  blood-red,  rather  coarse  and  acid,  fair  to  good  in  quality, 
tightly  clinging  to  the  pit ;  midseason  ;  productive. 

Imported  by  Luther  Burbank  in  1886.  Figured  in  Pomologist’s 
Report,  Rept.  Dept.  Agr.  1887,  Plate  I.  (colored),  and  also  in 
Wickson’s  California  Fruits,  351,  the  latter  copied  from  the  for¬ 
mer.  I  have  never  seen  a  Satsuma  with  such  a  small  pit  as  rep¬ 
resented  in  these  cuts,  nor  of  the  same  shape.  The  fruit  appears 
to  be  uniform  in  shape  and  markings,  and  it  is  figured  from  life 
in  Bulletin  62.  The  Satsuma  is  hardy  in  the  northern  states. 
Stark  Bros.,  Louisiana,  Mo.,  write  that  it  blooms  too  early  with 
them  and  is  not  so  hardy  as  some  others.  This  belongs  to  the 
Beni-Sumomo  group  of  the  Japanese,  which  is  characterized  by  red 
flesh.  Season  about  with  Burbank.  Usually  too  sour  to  be 
agreeable,  and  the  color  is  such  that  the  market  will  probably  ob¬ 
ject  to  it.  Very  long  keeper. 

Sea-Egg  ( Burbank ). 

Mr.  Burbank  sends  me  a  very  handsome  and  well-marked  Japanese  plum 
under  this  name,  which  is  globular-heart-shape  in  outline,  and  mottled-red  ; 
flesh  very  thick  and  meaty,  orange-yellow,  sweet  and  excellent,  with  a  slight 
muskiness;  cling. 

Shiro  Smomo  :  see  Red  Nagate  and  Berger. 

Shipper  ( Burbank ). 

Fruit  oval,  light  red  with  a  white  bloom  ;  flesh  very  firm,  yellow,  sweet 
and  juicy;  long  keeper.  Tree  sturdy,  but  a  moderate  grower.  Described 
with  Burbank’s  Novelties,  1893.  Seedling  of  Satsuma. 

Shira  ta  Bene. 

“Similar  to  Satsuma,  but  much  earlier,  ripening  in  July;  fruit  blood  red 
through.”—/.  H.  Haynes  { Indiana )  in  Prairie  Farmer ,  Dec.  21 ,  1895,  8. 

Strawberry:  see  Uchi- Beni 

Sweet  Botan  :  see  Berckmans. 


Japanese  Plums. 


27 


True  Sweet  Botan  :  see  Berckmans. 

Uchi-Beni. 

Ura-Beni. 

Honsmomo. 

Strawberry. 

Medium  in  size,  heart-shape  and  somewhat  pointed,  bright  carmine-red  ; 
flesh  red  and  fine-grained,  somewhat  acid,  rather  poor  in  quality,  cling  ; 
rather  early.  Little  known.  Uchi-Beni  means  inside  red. 

Stark  Bros,  write  me  as  follows,  under  date  of  August  12,  1895  :  “This  is 
a  small  plum  similar  to  the  variety  you  describe  as  Berger,  and  is  the  variety 
we  called  Strawberry  wheu  we  propagated  it ;  but  we  discarded  it  two  years 
ago.  Ripens  a  few  days  after  the  Earliest  of  All,  but  is  not  so  large  nor  so 
good  quality,  and  is  not  at  all  productive,  while  the  Earliest  of  All  is  re¬ 
markably  productive.” 

White-Feeshed  Botan  :  see  Berckmans. 

Wasse  Botonkyo. 

Name  given,  without  comment,  in  J.  L-  Normand’s  “Special  Circular,” 
1895-6. 

Wasse  Sumomo. 

“Said  to  be  very  early.”— J.  L.  Normand ,  “ Special  Circular ,”  1895-6. 

Wassu. 

Name  only,  in  J.  L.  Normand’s  “Special  Circular,”  1895-6. 

Weeping  Beood. 

“  This  is  a  valuable  acquisition,  said  to  produce  a  blood  red  plum  of  good 
quality.  The  tree  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated.  I  have  them  here  on  my 
experimental  grounds,  growing  finely  ;  I  budded  them  at  different  heights  on 
straight  peach  stock  four  to  eight  feet  from  the  ground,  with  slender  limbs 
curving  down  gracefully  like  the  Tea’s  Weeping  mulberry.  Single  trees  set 
out  on  the  lawn  look  grand.”— J.  L.  Normand ,  “  Special  Circular ,”  1895-6. 

White  Keesey. 

“  This  is  a  duplicate  in  size  and  shape  of  the  common  Kelsey,  except  it  is 
of  a  pale,  creamy  color,  almost  white  when  ripe ;  does  not  rot  before  maturi¬ 
ty  like  the  Kelsey,  and  much  earlier  to  ripen  and  later  to  bloom  than  it; 
delicious  in  flavor.” — J.  L.  Normand ,  “ Special  Circular ,”  18(95-6. 

Wickson  ( Burbank ,  Catalogue ,  1894). 

Perfection,  of  Burbank. 

A  remarkably  handsome  and  very  large  deep  maroon-red  plum  of  the  Kel¬ 
sey  type.  Long-cordate,  or  oblong-pointed  ;  flesh  firm,  deep  amber-yellow, 
clinging  to  the  small  pit.  There  is  apt  to  be  a  hollow  space  about  the  pit,  as 
there  is  in  Kelsey.  I  have  had  the  plums  from  Burbank  three  times,  all  of 
them  in  good  condition  and  have  tested  them  when  in  prime  condition  ;  but 
each  time  the  fruit  has  had  such  a  pronounced  musky-almond  flavor  that  I 
could  not  enjoy  it.  Mr.  Burbank,  however,  regards  it  as  superior  to  Hale  in 
quality.  Excellent  keeper.  Cross  of  Burbank  with  Kelsey,  Burbank  fur¬ 
nishing  the  seed. 

Stark  Bros,  report  that  nursery  stock  of  this  variety  has  stood  220  below 
zero  at  their  place  without  injury. 


28 


Bulletin  106. 


Willard  (IV.  F.  Heikes,  1893).  Fig.  12. 

Botan  No.  26. 

Medium  in  size,  spherical  to  oblong  in  general  outline  but 
prominently  cornered  or  angled,  never  pointed,  the  sinus  very 


slight  but  stem  cavity  deep ;  color  bright  claret-red  with  many 
minute  yellow  dots  ;  flesh  rather  firm,  whitish,  of  poor  quality  ; 
freestone.  A  strong,  vigorous  and  hardy  tree,  productive, 


12. —  Willard.  Grown  by  S.  D.  Willard ,  Geneva, 


13. —  Yosebe .  One  of  the  Somomo  or  eherry-like  type. 


Japanese  Peums. 


29 


and  one  of  the  earliest  plums  yet  tested  in  the  north,  ripening  in 

central  New  York  late 
in  July.  In  appearance 
the  fruit  is  remarkably 
like  some  of  the  improved 
types  of  Primus 
Americana.  The 
fruit  is  hand^  ome 
when  well  ripen¬ 
ed,  and  keeps 
two  to  three 
weeks  if  picked 
when  it 
begins  to 
color,  but 
the  quality 
is  alrnond- 
1  i  k  e  and 
poor,  —  so 
poor  that  I 
cannot  rec¬ 
ommend  it. 
I'ruit  picked 
iu  1895  on 
July  16,  when 
it  just  began 
to  color,  kept 
until  August 
6,  the  speci¬ 
mens  shrivel¬ 
ing  rather 
than  rotting. 

Cions  procured  from 
California  six  or  seven 
years  ago  by  S.  D. 
Willard,  Geneva, 

N.  Y.,  and  named  for  him  by  W.  V.  Heikes  in  Practical  Nursery¬ 
man ,  June  1 893.  It  was  undoubtedly  imported  from  Japan,  but  the 


30 


Bulletin  106. 


history  of  it  is  lost.  Mr.  Burbank  writes:  “I  had  the  Willard 
sixteen  years  ago.  Not  valuing  it  very  highly,  I  discarded  it 
many  years  ago,  although  it  may  prove  valuable  as  an  early 
variety  ;  but  I  would  prefer  Stark  Bros.’  Red  June,  which  ripens 
at  the  same  time,  but  even  that  variety,  though  handsome,  is  poor 
in  quality.” 

Yeddo. 

“  Much  like  White  Kelsey,  which  it  resembles  in  some  respects,  but  it  is 
of  a  deeper  yellow  color  and  ten  days  later  to  ripen,  and  very  attractive  and 
fine-flavored  plum.”— -J.  S.  Notmand ,  “  Special  Circular ,”  1895-6. 

Yellow  Japan  :  See  Chase. 

Yonemomo  :  See  Satsuma. 

Yosebe.  Fig.  13. 

A  small  short-oblong-pointed  fruit,  with  slender  stem  and  almost 
no  suture  ;  deep  purple-red  all  over ;  flesh  dark  yellow,  soft,  sub¬ 
acid,  with  a  pronounced  almond  flavor  ;  pit  small  and  free.  A 
handsome  very  early  plum,  but  the  quality  poor.  Falls  from  the 
tree  as  soon  as  rip'e,  leaving  the  stem  on  the  tree.  Ripe  here  a 
week  earlier  than  Willard. 

Tree  an  upright  grower,  with  reddish  twigs  and  light-colored 
foliage.  Reaves  comparatively  small  and  rugose,  somewhat  con- 
duplicate,  very  prominently  serrate,  yellowish  green.  Stipules 
conspicuous.  Tree  very  unlike  other  Japanese  plums,  when  in 
leaf. 

There  are  two  or  three  varieties  passing  as  Yosebe,  and  nobody 
knows  which  one  is  entitled  to  the  name.  Neither  do  I  know 
whether  the  proper  orthography  of  the  name  is  Yosebe  or  Yosobe. 
It  is  probable  that  all  the  varieties  have  been  given  separate 
names,  which  can  be  used  as  soon  as  the  characteristics  of  the 
varieties  are  understood. 

Apt  to  be  confounded  with  Berger.  The  Berger  is  small  and 
nearly  or  quite  globular,  with  a  smooth  circular  cherry-like  pit  ; 
Yosebe  is  distinctly  cordiform  and  a  half  to  twice  larger,  with  a 
roughish  and  lenticular  pit.  The  two  are  also  very  unlike  in 
foliage. 


L.  H.  Bailey. 


Bulletin  107.  January,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  IN.  Y. 

ENTOHOLOGICAL  DIVISION. 


WIREWORMS 

AND 

THE  BUD  MOTH. 


See  page  59. 


By  M.  V.  SLINGERLAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1895. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob 

Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caedwele, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Goued  Schurman. 

Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 
I.  P.  Roberts,  - 

E.  L.  Wieeiams,  ----- 
H.  W.  Smith,  - 

ASSISTANTS. 

M.  V.  Seingereand,  - 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 

E.  G.  Lodeman,  .... 

L.  A.  Clinton,  - 

E.  J.  Durand,  ----- 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 

Horticulture. 

Agriculture. 

Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 


EXPLANATORY  NOTE. 


In  Bulletin  33,  issued  in  November,  1891,  Professor  J.  H.  Com¬ 
stock  and  the  writer  gave  a  detailed  account,  occupying  80  pages, 
of  nearly  three  years  of  experimentation  with  wireworms ,  The 
bulletin  embodied  the  results  of  our  efforts  to  discover  a  practica¬ 
ble  method  of  preventing  the  ravages  of  these  pests,  and  a  study 
of  the  life-history  of  several  common  species. 

In  Bulletin  50,  issued  in  March,  1893,  the  writer  devoted  26 
pages  to  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  bud  moth ,  one  of  the  most 
destructive  insect  pests  in  the  orchards  of  western  New  York. 
Our  two  years’  study  of  the  insect  enabled  us  to  correct  several 
erroneous  statements  regarding  its  habits  and  life-history  which 
had  a  very  practical  bearing  on  the  method  of  combating  it. 

Wireworms  had  long  ranked  among  the  worst  insect  pests  of 
the  general  farmer  ;  the  bud  moth  threatened  to  ‘  ‘  nip  in  the  bud” 
many  a  prospective  crop  of  fruit ;  and  unfortunately  what  little 
definite  and  accurate  knowlege  had  been  published  regarding 
these  insects  was  widely  scattered  and  inaccessible  to  the  farmer 
or  fruit  grower.  Therefore,  as  our  bulletins  combined  these  pre¬ 
viously  ascertained  facts  with  many  new  ones,  the  results  of 
much  original  investigation,  the  demand  for  the  bulletins  was  so 
great  that  the  entire  edition  of  each  was  exhausted  in  less  than  a 
year.  So  that  during  the  past  two  or  three  years  that  these  bul¬ 
letins  have  been  “out  of  print,”  the  information  they  contain  has 
been  inaccessable  to  the  hundreds  of  correspondents  who  have  de¬ 
sired  information  regarding  wireworms  and  the  bud  moth. 

Although  but  few  observations  have  since  been  made  on  these 
insects,  it  seems  advisable,  in  consideration  of  the  above  facts,  to 
again  discuss  them.  In  the  following  pages  we,  therefore,  give,  in 
a  condensed  form,  the  information  contained  in  bulletins  33  and 
50  ;  what  few  new  facts  we  have  seen  recorded  are  also  included 
in  their  proper  connection,  thus  bringing  the  information  up  to 
date.  Several  new  figures  enliven  the  pages. 

M.  V.  SEINGERRAND. 


CONTENTS. 


Wireworms.  Pages  37-56. 

I.  Introduction. 

II.  Methods  of  Experimentation.  Page  39. 

III.  Experiments  Pages  40-50. 

A.  Protection  of  Seeds.  Pages  40-43. 

1.  By  a  coating  of  Paris  green  and  flour.  Page  40. 

2.  By  a  coating  of  tar.  Page  41. 

3.  By  soaking  it  in  a  solution  of  salt.  Page  41. 

4.  By  soaking  it  in  a  copperas  solution.  Page  41. 

5.  By  soaking  it  in  a  chloride  of  lime  and  copperas  solution.  Page  42, 

6.  By  soaking  it  in  kerosene  oil.  Page  42. 

7.  By  soaking  it  in  turpentine.  Page  42. 

8.  By  soaking  it  in  a  strychnine  solution.  Page  42. 

9.  By  soaking  it  in  other  poisonous  substances.  Page  42. 

B.  Destruction  of  the  Larvae.  Pages  43-48. 

1.  By  starvation.  Page  43. 

a.  By  clean  fallow. 

b.  By  supposed  immune  crops,  like  buckwheat,  mustard,  and  rape. 

2.  By  insecticides,  as  kerosene,  crude  petroleum,  poisoned  dough, 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  salt,  kainit,  muriate  of  potash,  lime, 
chloride  of  lime,  and  gas  lime.  Page  45. 

C.  Destruction  of  pupae  and  adults.  Pages  48-50. 

1.  Fall  plowing  Page  48. 

2.  Trapping.  Page  49. 

General  Summary  of  the  Methods  .of  combating  Wireworms.  Page  50. 

IV.  The  Transformation  of  Several  Species  of  Wireworms.  Page  50. 

1.  The  wheat  wireworm  ( Agriotes  mancus ).  Page  51. 

2.  Asaphes  decoloratus.  Page  52. 

3.  Melanotus  communis.  Page  53, 

4.  Drasterias  elegans.  Page  54. 

5.  Cryptohypnus  abbreviatus.  Page  55. 

The  Bud  Moth  (  Tmetocera  ocellana ).  Pages  57-66. 

Its  history  and  distribution.  Page  57. 

How  it  is  spread.  Page  58. 

Its  name  and  classification.  Page  58. 

How  its  presence  is  indicated.  Page  59. 

Its  appearance.  Page  59. 

Its  life  history. 

Its  appearance  and  habits  in  the  spring.  Page  60. 

Pupation.  Page  62. 

Habits  of  the  moth.  Page  62. 

Egg-laying.  Page  62. 

Summer  habits  of  the  caterpillar.  Page  63. 

Hibernation.  Page  63. 

Number  of  broods.  Page  64. 

Its  natural  enemies.  Page  64. 

Methods  of  preventing  its  ravages.  Page  64. 


WIREWORMS. 


RESULTS  OF  EFFORTS  TO  DISCOVER  A  PRACTICA¬ 
BLE  METHOD  OF  PREVENTING  THE  RAVAGES 
OF  THESE  PESTS,  AND  A  STUDY  OF  THE  LIFE 
HISTORY  OF  SEVERAL  COMMON  SPECIES. 


I.  INTRODUCTION. 

Among  the  most  prominent  of  the  pests  that  infest  field  crops 
are  the  insects  commonly  known  as  wireworms.  These  are  long 
slender  grubs  of  a  yellowish-white  color  and  with  unusually  hard 
bodies.  Their  wire-like  form  and  the  hardness  of  the  body  has 
suggested  the  common  name.  Two  wireworms  are  shown,  natural 
size,  among  the  roots  in  figure  16; 
one  is  represented  enlarged  in  figure 
14.  Unfortunately  the  term  wire-  14. — A  wireworm ,  twice  natural  size. 

worm  has  been  misapplied  to  certain  animals — the  millipedes — 
which  are  not  true  insects  but  belong  to  a  different  class  in  the 
animal  kingdom.  Figure  15  represents  a  millipede.  The  follow¬ 
ing  pages  do  not  treat  of 
millipedes. 

The  true  wireworms  are 
15, — A  millipede.  the  young  of  click-beetles, 

or  snapping-bugs  as  they  are  more  commonly  termed.  Our  com¬ 
mon  kinds  of  click-beetles  are  mostly  small  or  of  medium  size  ; 
a  few  are  larger.  Two  are  shown  on  the  corn  plant  in  figure  16, 
and  figures  17  and  18  represent  others.  They  are  usually  of  a 
uniform  brownish  color  ;  some  are  conspicuously  spotted.  More 
than  five  hundred  kinds  of  click-beetles  have  been  described  from 
North  America.  “There  is  hardly  a  country  child  that  has  not 
been  entertained  by  the  acrobatic  performances  of  these  long,  tidy- 


38 


Bulletin  107. 


17  —A  click- 
beetle. 


appearing  beetles.  Touch  one  of  them  and  it  at  once  curls  up  its 
legs  and  drops  as  if  shot ;  it  usually  lands  on  its  back, 
and  lies  there  for  a  time  as  if  dead.  Suddenly  there 
is  a  click,  and  the  insect  pops  up  into  the  air  several 
inches.  If  it  comes  down  on  its  back,  it  tries  again 
and  again  until  it  succeeds  in  striking  on  its  feet,  and 
then  runs  off.  We  remember  well  carrying  these  crea¬ 
tures  into  the 
old  district 
schoolhouse, 
where  all  les¬ 
sons  had  to  be 
learned  from 
books,  and  where  nature  was 
never  given  a  chance  to  teach 
us  anything.  Here  with  one 
eye  on  the  teacher  and  one  on 
this  interesting  jumper  laid  on 
our  book  be¬ 
ll  i  n  d  the 
desk,  we 
found  a  most 
f  ascinating 
occupation 
for  the  tedi- 
o  u  s  m  o  - 
ments.  But 
the  end  was 
always  the 
same  ;  the 

.  18. —  The  Eyed  Elater 

beetle  jump-  (Alaus  oculatus). 

ed  so  high  that  it  betrayed  us 
and  was  liberated,  and  we 
were  disgraced.”  {From  Com¬ 
stock's  Manual  for  the  study  oj 

16. — A  corn-plant  growing  in  a  root-cage  infest- fjisects  t) .  . ) 

ed  by  wireworms  and  click-beetles  ( from  a  '  r'  jttj/ 

specimen  in  the  Cornell  Insectary).  Many  SpecieS  of  wireWOrmS 

are  not  at  all  injurious  to  agriculture,  but  certain  others  live  in 


WIREWORMS. 


39 


the  soil  and  feed  on  the  roots  of  plants,  and  on  seeds.  The  latter 
species  are  often  exceedingly  injurious  ;  and  as  they  work  in  the 
ground  out  of  sight,  they  are  very  difficult  to  combat. 

During  three  years  (1889,  1890  and  1891)  we  made  numerous  ex¬ 
periments  to  ascertain  a  practical  method  of  preventing  the  rav¬ 
ages  of  these  pests.  Unfortunately  our  efforts  were  not  attended 
with  that  degree  of  success  for  which  we  had  hoped,  and  thus 
the  chief  object  of  our  investigations  was  not  accomplished. 
But  we  did  succeed  in  proving  the  futility  of  many  methods  that 
have  been  very  generally  recommended  for  the  destruction  of 
these  pests  ;  and  it  seemed  worth  while  to  publish  the  detailed 
results  of  our  experiments,  as  given  in  bulletin  33,  for  they 
might  save  farmers  from  making  expensive  efforts  that  would 
surely  bring  no  adequate  returns. 

Much  has  been  written  upon  how  to  combat  wireworms.  And 
yet,  at  the  time  bulletin  33  was  written  (November,  1891),  there 
had  not  been  published  the  results  of  a  single  extensive  series  of 
carefully  conducted  experiments.  Professor  Forbes  has  recently 
published  some  results  he  obtained  in  1888  and  1891  (Seventh 
Report,  p.  48-49),  and  these  will  be  noted  in  connection  with  the 
discussion  of  our  experiments.  Most  writers  on  this  subject  have 
reasoned  and  written,  but  have  not  tested  their  theories. 


II.  methods  of  experimentation. 

Under  this  heading  in  bulletin  33,  we  described  and  figured  the 
different  kinds  of  cages  used  in  our  experiments.  As  they  are  of 
general  interest  to  the  working  entomologist  only,  we  will  not 
again  discuss  them.  Suffice  it  to  say  in  this  connection  that 
every  precaution  was  taken  to  keep  the  wireworms  under  as 
nearly  natural  conditions  as  possible,  and  the  experiments  were 
conducted  in  a  systematic  and  careful  manner.  To  eliminate 
possible  sources  of  error,  comparative  or  check  cages  were  used 
in  each  experiment ;  in  these  check  experiments  the  cages  were 
the  same  as  the  others,  only  they  remained  untreated.  So  far  as 
practicable,  every  method  was  applied  as  it  would  be  in  the  field. 


40 


Bulletin  107. 


III.  EXPERIMENTS. 

Both  defensive  and  offensive  measures  were  used  in  our  expert 
ments.  Thus  we  tried  to  protect  seed  from  the  ravages  of  the 
wire  worms,  and  we  also  tried  to  destroy  the  insects  in  each  of 
three  different  stages  of  their  existence — as  wireworm  or  larva, 
pupa,  and  adult ;  no  eggs  were  obtained  upon  which  to  experi¬ 
ment.  The  scope  of  our  experiments  was  necessarily  large  as 
they  embraced  nearly  all  of  the  methods  that  we  found  recom¬ 
mended  in  the  literature  of  these  insects.  Only  the  general 
results  can  be  given  here  ;  they  were  published  in  much  detail  in 
bulletin  33.  Most  of  them  were  made  in  1890  and  1891,  while 
some  were  begun  in  1889.  The  results  of  Professor  Forbes’ 
recently  published  experiments  will  also  be  included  in  their 
proper  connection  in  this  discussion. 

A.  PROTECTION  OF  SEEDS. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  the  injuries  caused  by  wireworms,  and 
the  one  most  keenly  appreciated  by  the  farmer,  is  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  seed.  Thus  farmers  have  given  more  attention 
to  protecting  their  seeds  than  to  any  other  method  of  combating 
wireworms.  Seeds  have  been  coated  with  various  substances  in 
the  effort  to  render  them  distasteful  or  poisonous  to  the  insects, 
and  several  methods  are  strongly  recommended.  But  as  none  of 
the  recommendations  were  based  on  carefully  ascertained  facts, 
we  tested  each  one. 

1.  Protection  of  Seed  by  a  Coating  of  Paris  Green  and 

Flour. 

This  method  promised  to  be  a  most  desirable  one  ;  for,  if  it 
resulted  as  we  confidently  expected,  not  only  would  the  seed  be 
protected  but  the  wireworms  would  also  be  killed. 

We  coated  kernels  of  corn  with  varying  amounts  of  Paris  green 
and  flour  (in  one  case  sugar  was  added),  and  carried  on  a  large 
number  of  experiments  covering  a  period  of  nearly  two  years. 
The  only  apparent  result  of  the  coating  was  to  retard  the  sprout¬ 
ing  of  the  seeds.  We  saw  wireworms  destroy  several  of  the 
coated  seeds  without  apparent  injury  to  themselves. 


WIREWORMS. 


41 


In  1888,  Professor  Forbes  found  that  corn  which  “  was  covered 
with  a  coating  of  the  green  poison,  was  eaten  freely  by  some  of 
the  wireworms  without  killing  them.”  In  1885,  he  also  mixed 
Paris  green  to  the  soil  in  which  the  corn  was  planted  without  any 
injurious  effect  on  the  wireworms,  but  the  corn  failed  to  grow. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  it  is  useless  to  try  to  protect  seed  from 
the  attacks  of  wireworms  by  coating  it  with  a  Paris  green  mix¬ 
ture. 

2.  Protection  of  Seed  by  a  Coating  of  Tar. 

It  has  long  been  a  common  practice  among  farmers  to  coat  their 
seed  corn  with  tar  to  prevent  its  being  attacked  by  wireworms. 
However,  no  one  has  demonstrated  that  they  will  not  attack  corn 
thus  coated. 

Our  results  from  two  years  of  experimentation  show  that  some¬ 
times  larvse  will  attack  seed  corn  even  when  it  is  completely 
coated  with  tar.  In  actual  practice,  but  few  of  the  kernels  would 
get  a  complete  coat  ;  it  requires  considerable  disagreeable  labor  to 
apply  the  coating ;  germination  is  considerably  retarded,  even 
when  the  kernel  has  been  previously  soaked  in  water  ;  and  corn 
thus  treated  cannot  be  readily  used  in  a  planter.  From  these 
considerations  it  can  be  seen  that  this  method  of  protection  does 
not  afford  that  degree  of  certainty  and  practicability  which  is 
desired. 

3.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  a  Solution  of  Salt. 

This  method  was  quite  commonly  practiced  many  years  ago 
among  farmers  in  western  New  York.  Our  series  of  experi¬ 
ments,  extending  over  a  period  of  nearly  a  year,  made  it  evident 
that  corn  soaked  in  a  saturated  salt  solution  is  as  readily  eaten 
by  wireworms  as  if  not  thus  soaked,  and  no  injury  results  to  the 
wireworms. 

4.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  a  Copperas 

Solution. 

In  1876  an  Illinois  farmer  reported  favorable  results  from  soak¬ 
ing  his  seed  corn  before  planting  in  a  solution  of  copperas  (sul¬ 
phate  of  iron),  to  protect  it  from  the  attacks  of  wireworms. 


42 


Bulletin  107. 


After  two  seasons  of  experimentation  with  the  solution,  we  got 
no  results  which  indicated  that  wireworms  would  not  eat  and 
destroy  seed  soaked  in  it  as  readily  as  any  other,  and  receive  no 
injury  therefrom. 

5.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  a  Chloride  of 

Lime  and  Copperas  Solution. 

Our  experiments  during  two  seasons  gave  conclusive  evidence 
that  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  and  copperas  will  not  protect 
seed  corn  which  has  been  soaked  in  it  from  the  attacks  of  wire- 
worms. 

6.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  Kerosene  Oil. 

In  our  experiments  with  this  substance  made  in  the  spring  of 
1891  the  wireworms  destroyed  nearly  every  kernel  of  corn  we 
planted  ;  there  were  no  indications  that  this  food  disagreed  with 
them. 

7.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  Spirits  of 

Turpentine. 

The  soaking  of  seed  corn  in  turpentine  has  been  frequently 
recommended  as  a  preventive  against  attack  from  wireworms. 
All  of  the  kernels  of  corn  we  thus  soaked  were  destroyed,  before 
germination  began,  by  the  wireworms  and  they  were  unaffected 
by  the  meal. 

8.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  a  Strychnine 

Solution. 

The  idea  of  soaking  seed  corn  in  a  solution  of  strychnine  was 
suggested  to  us  by  the  fact  that  seed  thus  soaked  is  used  to  poison 
sparrows  and  gophers.  Our  results  from  experiments  made  in 
1891  showed  that  although  seed  corn  be  soaked  in  a  very  strong 
solution  of  strychnine,  it  is  rendered  neither  distasteful  nor 
destructive  to  wireworms.  Prof.  Forbes  has  recently  reported 
similar  results  from  experiments  made  in  Illinois  in  1888  and 
1891. 

9.  Protection  of  Seed  by  Soaking  it  in  Other  Poison¬ 

ous  Substances. 

In  1888  and  1891,  Professor  Forbes  fed  to  wireworms  corn  that 
had  been  soaked  in  the  following  : 


WIREWORMS. 


43 


A  mixture  of  Paris  green  and  water. 

Fowler’s  solution,  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water. 

An  alcoholic  solution  of  arsenic. 

« 

A  solution  of  arsenic  in  boiling  water. 

An  alcoholic  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

A  saturated  solution  of  potassium  cyanide. 

In  almost  every  case  the  wireworms  fed  upon  the  kernels  with¬ 
out  injury  to  themselves.  Thus,  Professor  Forbes  says,  “that  it 
is  not  practicable  to  protect  corn  by  means  of  these  substances, 
even  were  it  possible  to  use  them  without  retarding  or  preventing 
the  germination  of  the  seed.” 

B.  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  EARV7E. 

The  various  methods  that  have  been  proposed  for  the  destruction 
of  wireworms  fall  under  two  heads  :  First,  destruction  by  starva¬ 
tion  ;  second,  destruction  by  the  use  of  insecticides. 

i.  Destruction  of  Wireworms  by  Starvation. 

(a)  Starvation  by  Clean  Fallow. 

It  has  been  the  general  belief  that  the  wireworms  which  infest 
our  fields  could  live  but  a  short  time  in  soil  in  which  no  vegeta¬ 
tion  was  allowed  to  grow.  No  experiments  were  recorded,  how¬ 
ever,  to  show  how  long  the  worms  could  live  in  such  soil. 

We  kept  several  experiment  cages  in  “clean  fallow”  for  nearly 
a  year,  and  more  wireworms  remained  alive  (many  of  them 
passed  through  the  transformations  to  the  beetle  stage)  in  these 
cages  than  in  similar  cages  in  which  grass  was  kept  growing. 
Therefore,  we  would  not  advise  the  farmer  to  lose  the  use  of  his 
land  for  a  season  and  the  labor  necessary  to  keep  it  free  from  all 
vegetation  in  the  hope  that  he  may  thus  starve  out  the  wireworms. 

( b )  Starvation  by  the  Growth  of  Supposed  Immune  Crops. 

It  is  supposed  there  are  certain  crops  so  distasteful  to  wire- 
worms  that  when  these  crops  are  grown  the  worms  will  either 
perish  from  hunger  or  leave  the  field,  and  thus  the  succeeding 
crops  be  spared  from  the  ravages  of  these  pests.  The  crops 
usually  recommended  for  starving  out  the  wireworms  are  buck¬ 
wheat,  mustard  and  rape. 


44 


Bulletin  107. 
buckwheat. 


In  this  country  more  attention  has  been  directed  to  buckwheat 
as  a  supposed  immune  crop  than  to  any  other. 

By  a  series  of  experiments  extending  over  a  period  of  two 
years,  we  proved  that  wireworms  will  attack  and  cut  off  roots  of 
buckwheat ;  and  that  they  can  live  for  many  months,  and  undergo 
the  transformations  necessary  for  the  continuance  of  the  species, 
in  soil  in  which  only  buckwheat  is  growing.  Therefore  as  wire- 
worms  have  lived  as  long  and  thrived  as  well  in  cages  of  buck¬ 
wheat  as  they  have  in  cages  of  timothy  and  clover,  we  cannot 
regard  buckwheat  as  an  immune  crop. 

mustard. 

In  Europe,  mustard  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  crop  that  clears 
the  soil  of  wireworms  by  starving  them  out.  We  experimented 
with  both  the  Chinese  and  brown  mustard,  and  wireworms  lived 
in  cages  containing  no  other  vegetation  but  these  plants  for  from 
•one  to  two  years  ;  we  have  never  been  able  to  keep  them  alive  so 
long  in  cages  containing  clover  and  timothy.  Thus  our  experi¬ 
ments  do  not  indicate  that  a  crop  of  mustard  will  render  the  soil 
so  free  from  wireworms  that  the  succeeding  crop  will  escape  their 
ravages. 

RAPE- 

Another  crop,  upon  which  it  is  said  wireworms  will  not  feed,  is 
rape.  It  is  but  little  grown  in  America,  but  is  considerably 
grown  in  England  to  provide  pasture  that  will  fatten  sheep  readily. 

Wireworms  lived  as  long  and  thrived  as  well  in  our  breeding 
cages  on  roots  of  rape  as  in  soil  in  which  clover  and  timothy  were 
grown.  Thus,  it  would  seem  that  rape  can  no  more  be  regarded 
as  an  immune  crop  than  any  other  crop  cultivated  at  the  same 
time. 

2.  Destruction  of  Wireworms  by  means  of  Insecticides. 

As  the  species  of  wireworms  which  infest  growing  crops  live 
during  their  whole  larval  life  beneath  the  surface  among  the  roots, 
it  is  a  more  difficult  matter  to  reach  them  with  insecticides  than 
those  pests  which  feed  exposed  on  the  plants.  A  substance  must 
have  great  penetrating  and  killing  power  to  be  of  any  value. 


WIREWORMS. 


45 


Most  of  the  substances  that  have  been  recommended  were  first 
applied  merely  as  fertilizers,  but  in  later  years  their  insecticidal 
properties  also  have  been  much  discussed. 

(a)  Substa?ices  that  act  merely  as  Insecticides. 

9 

Most  of  the  insecticides  which  we  used  are  well  known  and 
have  been  used  successfully  against  other  underground  insects. 

KEROSENE,  PURE  AND  AS  AN  EMULSION. 

In  1885,  Professor  Forbes  found  that  “applications  of  these 
substances  made  to  wireworms  in  the  earth  were  found  practically 
ineffective,  any  strength  sufficient  to  kill  them  killing  vegetation 
also.”  Our  experiments  corroborate  Professor  Forbes’  conclu¬ 
sion.  We  found  that  wireworms  could  be  killed  by  using  either 
substance  in  sufficient  quantities,  but  this  amount  would  destroy 
all  vegetation  and  would  be  too  expensive  an  application. 

CRUDE  PETROLEUM,  PURE  AND  AS  AN  EMULSION. 

On  the  whole  our  results  with  the  crude  petroleum  emulsion 
and  with  the  crude  petroleum  were  not  as  promising  as  those 
obtained  with  the  kerosene  oil  emulsion. 

POISONED  DOUGH. 

In  our  experiments  in  1888,  poisoned  sweetened  dough  was 
used  with  some  success  to  attract  and  destroy  the  click- beetles. 
(See  Bulletin  No.  3,  Nov.,  1888,  p.  38.)  As  the  wireworms  in 
our  breeding  cages  readily  came  to  the  surface  to  eat  wheat  scat¬ 
tered  thereon,  it  was  thought  that  many  might  be  attracted  by 
sweetened  dough  placed  on  the  surface. 

A  few  experiments  soon  made  it  evident  that  the  wireworms 
could  not  be  thus  attracted  to  the  poisoned  dough. 

BISULPHIDE  OF  CARBON. 

This  substance  has  been  quite  extensively  used  against  certain 
subterranean  insects.  Our  experiments  showed  that  it  would 
kill  wireworms  when  poured  into  a  hole  near  infested  plants  ; 
but  as  it  had  to  be  used  at  the  rate  of  about  150  gallons  per  acre, 
its  cost  would  be  excessive. 


46  Bulletin  107. 

(£)  Substances  that  act  also  as  Fertilizers. 

There  are  several  substances  now  in  common  use  as  fertilizers 
which  possess  some  insecticidal  properties.  Dealers  in  the  potash 
fertilizers,  especially  kainit  and  muriate  of  potash,  claim  that  the 
ravages  of  wireworms  are  effectually  checked  by  the  use  of  their 
fertilizers.  In  1890  and  1891  we  carried  on  a  large  series  of  ex¬ 
periments  with  salt,  kainit,  muriate  of  potash,  lime,  chloride  of 
lime,  and  gas-lime  to  determine  whether  they  might  be  effectually 
used  against  wireworms. 

SALT. 

Many  farmers  assert  that  salt  either  destroys  wireworms,  drives 
them  deeper  into  the  soil  beyond  the  roots,  or  renders  the  soil  so 
obnoxious  that  the  worms  leave. 

1.  Will  salt  kill  wireworms  ? — From  a  large  series  of  experi¬ 
ments  we  found  that  to  destroy  wireworms,  salt  must  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  about  eight  tons  to  the  acre,  or  over  one  per  cent,  of 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  four  inches  must  be  salt.  This  amount 
would  be  very  destructive  to  vegetation. 

2.  Will  salt  drive  wireworms  deeper  into  the  soil? — In  1891  we 
thoroughly  tested  this  supposed  action  of  salt  upon  wireworms  by 
means  of  special  apparatus  devised  for  the  purpose  (see  Bulletin 
33,  p.  230  for  detailed  description  and  figures). 

The  results  of  this  experiment  indicated  that  salt  applied  at  the 
rate  of  1000  pounds  per  acre  (a  heavy  dressing)  interfered  with 
the  germination  of  wheat,  and  neither  drove  the  wireworms 
deeper  into  the  soil,  nor  caused  them  to  migrate  any  appreciable 
distance. 

KAINIT. 

This  is  a  German  potash  salt  which  is  now  much  used  as  a  fer¬ 
tilizer  in  this  country.  We  made  many  and  varied  experiments 
with  kainit  on  wireworms.  The  results  obtained  indicate  that 
kainit  has  but  little,  if  any,  effect  on  wireworms  in  the  soil  even 
when  applied  in  very  large  quantities,  as  from  four  to  nine  tons 
per  acre. 

It  should  be  noted  that  these  results  are  diametrically  opposed 
to  those  obtained  by  Professor  J.  B.  Smith  of  the  New  Jersey  Ex¬ 
periment  Station  (. bisect  Life ,  Vol.  4,  Nos.  1  and  2,  p.  45  ; 


WIREWORMS. 


47 


Bull.  85,  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  5  ;  An.  Rept.  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  for 
1891,  p.  42).  However,  none  of  the  statements  yet  made  by  Pro¬ 
fessor  Smith  are  supported,  by  sufficient  evidence  to  lead  us  to 
modify  the  conclusions  derived  from  the  results  of  our  experi¬ 
ments.  Professor  Forbes  says  of  the  experiment  upon  which 
most  of  Professor  Smith’s  evidence  is  based  :  “  It  is  evident  from 
the  context  that  this  experiment  had  been  made  some  years  be¬ 
fore,  apparently  not  under  the  inspection  of  an  entomologist.” 
Mr.  F.  M.  Webster,  entomologist  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Sta¬ 
tion,  in  discussing  the  methods  of  fighting  wireworms,  says- (Bull. 
51,  Ohio  Expt.  Sta.,  p.  137):  “  There  may  be  some  virtue  in  the 
application  of  kainit,  although  this  has  not  as  yet  been  thor¬ 
oughly  and  clearly  demonstrated.” 

MURIATE  OF  POTASH. 

This  is  a  product  of  German  mines,  and  is  our  principal  potash 
fertilizer. 

After  many  experiments  extending  over  a  period  of  more  than 
nine  months,  we  were  forced  to  conclude  that  it  has  to  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  from  four  to  six  tons  per  acre  to  have  any  effect  on  the 
larvae,  and  then  it  is  not  so  effective  as  the  cheaper  kainit  or  the 
much  cheaper  common  salt.  Its  use  in  such  large  quantities 
would  also  be  very  destructive  to  vegetation.  Although  a  valua¬ 
ble  fertilizer,  it  is  too  expensive  an  insecticide  to  use  against  wire- 
worms. 

time. 

Eime  has  long  been  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  many  report  good 
results  from  its  use  on  fields  infested  by  wireworms.  However, 
our  experiments  covering  a  period  of  over  seven  months  showed 
that  lime  applied  at  the  rate  of  even  200  bushels  per  acre,  either 
slaked  or  unslaked,  or  as  lime  water,  had  no  effect  upon  the  wire- 
worms. 

CHLORIDE  OF  LIME. 

Several  experiments  made  with  this  substance  showed  that  it 
will  kill  wireworms  in  the  soil,  but  must  be  used  at  the  rate  of 
nearly  six  tons  per  acre.  It  is  thus  impracticable  and  too  expen¬ 


sive. 


48 


Bulletin  107. 


gas  lime. 

This  is  the  refuse  lime  thrown  out  at  gas  works.  When  fresh 
it  smells  strongly  of  ammonia  and  sulphur,  but  becomes  nearly 
odorless  after  exposure  to  the  air  for  a  few  days.  We  thoroughly 
tested  it ;  and  our  experiments  indicate  that  the  killing  properties 
of  the  gas  lime  soon  pass  away,  and  it  has  to  be  used  fresh  in 
such  great  quantities  (twenty  to  forty  tons  per  acre)  to  be  even 
partially  effective  that,  notwithstanding  its  cheapness,  it  is  hardly 
practicable  on  large  areas. 

» 

C.  DESTRUCTION  OF  PUP.E  AND  ADULTS. 

(CLICK-BEETLES.) 

1.  Fall  Plowing. 

It  is  with  pleasure  that  we  turn  from  the  discussion  of  measures 
that  give  little  or  no  promise  of  practical  use  to  one  that  we  be¬ 
lieve  is  of  great  importance.  For  the  results  of  our  experiments 
convince  us  that  much  can  be  done  towards  checking  the  increase 
of  wireworms  by  fall  plowing. 

The  explanation  of  the  beneficial  results  that  will  follow  fall 
plowing  we  believe  to  be  found  in  the  following  facts,  which  were 
brought  out  in  our  studies  of  the  life  history  of  our  more  common 
species  of  wireworms  :  Wireworms  live  for  at  least  three  years 
in  the  worm  or  larval  state.  In  this  state  they  cease  feeding  about 
November  1  st,  and  hibernate  until  spring.  When  the  worms  are 
fully  grown  they  change  to  soft  white  pupae  which  resemble  the 
beetle  in  form.  This  change  takes  place  in  the  species  that  com¬ 
monly  infests  field  crops  during  the  month  of  July.  The  pupa 
state  lasts  only  about  three  weeks,  the  insect  assuming  the  adult 
form  in  August.  But,  strange  to  say,  although  the  adult  state  is 
reached  at  this  time,  the  insect  remains  in  the  cell  in  the  ground 
in  which  it  has  undergone  its  transformations  till  the  following 
April  or  May,  nearly  an  entire  year. 

We  found  that  in  every  case  where  we  disturbed  the  soil  so  as 
to  break  these  earthen  cells,  the  insects  within  perished. 

This  experience  clearly  indicates  that  if  infested  fields  are 


WlREWORMS. 


49 


plowed  after  July  20th  and  thoroughly  pulverized  and  kept  stirred 
up,  many  of  the  little  earthen  cells  may  be  broken  and  the  tender 
pupae  or  beetles  within  destroyed.  After  three  or  four  weeks  of 
this  thorough  cultivation,  wheat  or  rye  may  be  sown. 

In  connection  with  this  fall  plowing  and  cultivation  we  earnestly 
recommend  the  method  of  short  rotation  of  crops  to  farmers  hav¬ 
ing  land  badly  infested  with  wireworms.  Do  not  keep  fields  in 
sod  for  more  than  a  year  or  two  at  a  time.  No  doubt  it  will  re¬ 
quire  several,  at  least  three  years  by  this  method,  to  render  the 
soil  comparatively  free  from  the  pests  as  only  the  pupae  and  adults 
are  killed  each  fall,  while  most  of  the  one-and  two-year-old  wire- 
worms  will  escape  injury.  Those  farmers  who  practice  the  method 
are  not  troubled  with  wireworms. 

2.  Trapping. 

Our  experiments  on  preventing  the  ravages  of  wireworms  by 
trapping  were  carried  on  in  1888  and  1889.  Two  methods  were 
employed,  trapping  by  baits,  and  by  lanterns. 

On  trapping  by  baits. — This  method  has  been  discussed  in  de¬ 
tail  in  bulletins  3  and  33  of  this  Station,  so  that  only  the  general 
results  will  be  given  here.  The  baits,  which  consisted  of  sliced 
potatoes,  wads  of  green  clover,  and  sweetened  and  unsweetened 
cornmeal  dough  were  placed  under  boards  in  various  parts  of  a 
badly  infested  corn  field.  Instead  of  attracting  the  wirewo  rms, 
as  was  expected,  their  parents — the  click-beetles — came  to  the 
baits  in  large  numbers  ;  the  clover  attracted  by  far  the  1  arger 
number  (65  per  cent.). 

It  was  found  that  the  beetles  were  the  most  active  at  night,  and 
that  they  seek  their  food  chiefly  by  running  over  the  surf  ace  of 
the  ground. 

When  it  was  found  that  they  were  so  readily  attracted  to  the 
baits,  poisoned  clover  baits  were  used  with  the  result  that  most 
of  the  click-beetles  were  destroyed,  proving  that  they  fed  upon 
the  baits  and  thus  suggesting  a  practical  method  of  comba  ting 
them.  Where  the  insects  are  very  numerous  over  a  limited  area, 
many  of  the  beetles  can  be  killed  with  the  expenditure  of  a  very 
little  labor  in  distributing  these  poisoned  baits. 


50 


Bulletin  107. 


On  trapping  by  la?iterns. — A  series  of  six  trap-lanterns  were 
kept  lighted  every  night  here  on  the  University  farm  from  May 
1st  to  October  1st,  1889.  During  the  whole  five  months  only 
eighty  click-beetles  were  captured.  Thus  the  method  has  no 
practical  value  in  fighting  wireworms. 

General  Summary  of  the  Methods  of  Combating  Wire- 

worms. 

When  we  began  our  experiments  in  1889,  we  confidently  ex¬ 
pected  to  be  able  in  a  short  time  to  tell  farmers  how  to  protect 
their  seed  and  their  growing  crops  from  these  pests.  We  thought 
that  the  greatest  part  of  our  work  would  be  to  determine  which  of 
several  ways  is  the  most  practicable,  the  easiest  used,  or  involv¬ 
ed  the  least  labor  or  expense.  For  three  years  we  did  our  best ; 
and  we  failed  to  discover  a  single  satisfactory  method  of  protect¬ 
ing  seed,  or  of  destroying  immature  wireworms  in  the  soil. 

We  did  learn,  however,  why  fall  cultivation  will  destroy  the 
wireworms  ready  to  pupate,  the  pupae,  and  the  beetles ;  the 
beetles  can  also  be  trapped  and  killed  in  large  numbers  with 
poisoned  clover  baits.  We  also  learned  that  many  commonly 
recommended  plans  are  useless. 

Such  a  short  rotation  of  crops  as  will  include  a  period  of 
thorough  cultivation  in  the  fall  will  prove  the  best  method  of 
fighting  these  pests  yet  suggested. 


IV.  NOTES  ON  THE  TRANSFORMATIONS  OF 
SEVERAE  SPECIES  OF  WIREWORMS. 

We  used  nearly  10,000  wireworms  in  our  experiments.  They 
were  collected  by  correspondents  in  L,ewis  county  and  forwarded 
to  us  in  invoices  of  a  thousand  or  more  at  a  time.  We  were  easily 
able  to  distinguish  five  different  species  among  those  sent.  The 
species  were  kept  in  separate  cages,  thus  enabling  us  to  make 
many  observations  on  the  habits,  etc.,  of  each  during  the  course  of 
our  experiments  upon  them. 


WIREWORMS. 


51 


i.  The  Wheat  Wireworm. 


Agriotes  viancus ,  Say. 

This  species  is  probably  the  most  numerous  and  most  destruc¬ 
tive  kind  of  wireworm  in  our  State  ;  it  constituted  9 1  per  cent,  of 
the  10,000  with  which  we  experimented. 

The  beetle  (Fig.  21)  was  described  in  1823,  but  nothing  was 
known  of  its  life  until  1867  when  Dr.  Fitch  described  the  wire- 
worm  (Fig.  19)  and  added  a  few  other  notes.  It  is  widely  dis¬ 
tributed  and  has  been  reported  as  destructive  in  Canada  and  some 
of  the  Western  States. 

Its  life-history. — It  is  not  known  where 
any  species  of  click-beetle  lays  its  eggs. 

It  is  the  general  opinion  that  they  are  laid 
in  the  spring  in  the  earth  close  to  the  roots 
of  the  plants. 

We  never  found  any  of  the  wheat  wire- 
worms  less  than  4  mm.  in  length  ;  they 
measure  when  full  grown  from  16  to  19 
mm.  They  are  of  a  waxy -yellow 
color;  their  general  appearance  is  well 
represented  in  figure  19  (a  detailed  de¬ 
scription  was  given  in  bulletin  33,  p.  257). 

The  eye-like  depressions  (Fig.  20,  e )  on 
the  sides  of  the  last  segment  render  it 
easily  distinguished  from  most  other 
wireworms.  How  long  this  insect  re¬ 
mains  in  the  wireworm  state,  we  failed  to 
learn.  We  found  that  one  cannot  draw 
accurate  conclusions  as  to  their  age  from 
their  size.  Our  observations  indicated 
that  this  wheat  wireworm  may  trouble 

the  farmer  at  least  three  years  before  as-  I9._7 -hewkcat  wireworm,  back 
suming  the  beetle  state;  it  grew  only  dltJiurfwurF^bfst^ 
about  2  mm.  during  six  months. 

The  wireworms  cease  feeding  in  the  fall  before  November  1st, 
and  descend  into  the  soil  for  several  inches  where  they  remain  in 
a  torpid  condition  all  winter.  With  appetites  sharpened  by  their 


52 


Bulletin  107. 

long  fast,  they  come  toward  the  surface  in  the  spring  and  do  more 
damage  than  at  any  other  time. 

When  they  become  full  grown,  which  occurs  about  July  1st, 

these  wheat  wireworms  prepare  for 
pupation  by  forming  a  little  earthen 
cell  in  the  soil,  usually  less  than  six 
inches  from  the  surface.  The  pupa 
is  of  a  pure  white  color,  very  soft, 
and  about  one-fourth  longer  than 
the  beetle  which  it  resembles  in 
general  appearance.  The  pupal 
stage  lasts  about  three  weeks,  and 
by  September  1st  all  have  trans- 

details  of  mouth  parts ,  enlarged;  formed  tO  beetles. 

e,  caudal  segment,  enlarged.  The  beetles  (one  is  shown,  en¬ 

larged  seven  times,  in  figure  21,  and  natural  size  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  corn  plant  in  figure  1 6)  are  of  a  dark  brown  color .  They 
remain  in  the  little  earthen  cells, 
made  by  the  wireworms,  all  win¬ 
ter,  and  work  their  way  to  the  sur¬ 
face  during  April.  They  fly  well 
and  can  run  quite  rapidly  ;  when 
disturbed  they  ‘  *  play  possum  ’  ’ 
for  a  time.  They  will  eat  clover 
leaves  and  we  saw  one  at  work 
on  a  kernel  of  wheat.  They 
lived  but  a  few  days  after  emer¬ 
ging  in  our  cages.  When  and 
where  they  lay  their  eggs  still 
remains  one  of  nature’s  secrets. 

2.  Asaphes  decoloratus ,  Say. 

This  click-beetle  is  widely  dis¬ 
tributed  over  the  northern  states 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and 
occurs  in  both  cultivated  and 
grass  lands.  It  has  not  yet  occurred  in  sufficient  numbers  to  be 
injurious;  only  about  five  per  cent,  of  the  wireworms  we  have 
examined  belonged  to  this  species. 


2r. — Agriotes  mancus ,  the  adult  en¬ 
larged  7  diameters  [after  Forbes'). 


WlREWORMS. 


53 


Its  life-history . — Our  specimens  of  the  wireworms  ranged  in 
length  from  7  mm.  to  25  mm.  They  are  of  a  dark,  waxy-yellow 
color ;  their  form  and  characteristic  features  are  well  shown  in 
figures  22  and  23  (a  detailed  description  is  given  in  bulletin  33, 
p.  261).  What  little  data  we  have  indicates  that  the  duration  of 
the  wireworm  period  is  at  least  three  years. 


22. —  The  wireworm  of  Asaphes  decoloratus,  enlarged  three  and  three-fourths 

diameters  ( after  Forbes). 


Unlike  the  wheat  wireworm,  this  wireworm  matures  in  May. 
The  change  to  a  pupa  takes  place  in  little  earthen  cells  in  the  soil. 
We  have  not  seen  the  pupa  ;  this  stage  lasts  about  three  weeks. 
Most  of  the  beetles  emerged  in  our  cages  in  June.  In  Professor 
Forbes’  experiments  in  Illinois  they  emerged  as  early  as  May  25th. 

The  beetle  varies  from  o  mm.  to  15 


mm.  in  length,  and  is  of  a  shining  black¬ 
ish  color  with  -s. 
forown  legs.  Its  f  j§!§ 

characteristic 
features  are 
well  shown  in 
figure  24.  All 
the  beetles 

53. — Caudal  segment  of  the  wire-  emerge  before 
worm  of  A  sap  lies  decoloratus,  ® 

much  enlarged  ( after  Forbes).  fall,  but  of  the 


further  life 
nothing. 


of  this  insect,  we  know 


3.  Melanotus  communis ,  Gyll. 

This  species  of  wireworm  is  very  com¬ 
mon  in  cultivated  lands,  especially  in 
corn  fields,  in  our  State;  Professor  Forbes 


24. — Asaphes  decoloratus,  the  adult , 
■  enlarged  four  and  one-fifth  dia¬ 
meters  ( after  Forbes). 


2j. — Caudal  segment  of 
the  wireworm  of  Me - 
lanotus  communis , 
greatly  enlarged  ( af¬ 
ter  Forbes). 


54  Bulletin  107. 

found  an  allied  species  (Af.  cribulosus )  much  more  common  in 
Illinois  corn  fields.  The  insect  is  widely  distributed, 
ranging  at  least  from  Nebraska  to  New  Jersey  and 
Canada. 

Its  life-history . — The  mature  wire- 
worms  vary  in  length  from  25  to  30 
mm.  They  are  of  a  light  brown 
color,  with  the  head,  thorax  and 
last  segment  considerably  darker. 

(They  are  described  in  detail  in 
bulletin  33,  p.  265.)  Figure  25 
shows  the  characteristics  of  the 
caudal  segment  of  this  wireworm, 
and  figure  26  (although  it  is  of  the 
closely  allied  species  M.  cribulosus ) 
will  serve  equally  well  to  show  the  principal  features 
of  the  whole  worm. 

The  insect  spends  at  least  three  years  as  a  wire- 
worm  ;  one  specimen  lived  in  our  cages  for  nearly 
two  years.  The  change  to  a  pupa  takes  place  in 
earthen  c^lls  during  July.  The  pupa  is  white  and  ten- 
26.—  The  corn  der,  and  changes  to  a  beetle  in  about  a  month.  The 

w  tr  ew  ortn 

( M e  l  anotus  principal  characteristics 

cribulosus), 

enlarged 4%  of  the  slender,  glossy, 

d  1  ci  yy'i  g  l  gYS 

{after Forbes  dark  brown  beetle  are 
well  shown  in  figure  27.  They  re¬ 
main  in  the  earthen  cells  in  the 
soil  all  winter,  emerging  in  May. 

May.  The  secret  of  the  rest  of  their 
life  remains  with  nature. 

f.  Drasterias  el  eg  an  s,  Fabr. 

This  species  of  wireworm  is  wide¬ 
ly  distributed  over  the  country  and 
has  been  reported  as  exceedingly 
abundant  and  injurious  to  young 
wheat  in  Indiana.  We  have  found 
it  quite  abundant  in  sod  land  here.  „  nr  ,  , 

Its  life  history—  Notwithstanding  adult<  e„iarged  four  diame- 
its  abundance,  comparatively  little  ter s  {after  Forbes). 


WlREWORMS. 


is  known  of  the  life  of  this  insect.  It  is  one  of  the 

smallest  of  the  wireworms,  measuring  from 
9  mm.  to  12  mm.  in  length  when  full  grown. 
Its  body  is  considerably  flattened  and  of  a  light 
waxy-yellow  color.  Figures  28  and  29  well  illus¬ 
trate  its  characteristic  features.  (It  is  described 
in  detail  in  bulletin  33,  p.  268).  They  undergo 
their  transformations  in  earthen  cells  in  the  soil, 
the  change  to  a  beetle  taking  place  about  July 
1st.  The  beetle  is  of  a  general  rusty-brown  color 
with  black  markings  ;  it  is  shown  natural  size 
and  enlarged  in  figure  30.  We  were  unable  to 
determine  whether  they  emerged  in  the  fall  or 
passed  the  winter  in  the  earthen  cells.  Professor 
Forbes  has  recorded  considerable  data  on  this 
point  which  leads  him  to  conclude  that  it  seems 
probable  that  they  emerge  in  the  summer  and 
early  fall,  probably 
laying  their  eggs  in 
part  the  same  season  ; 
son;  that  it  hibernates 
in  sheltered  places  and 
continues  abundant 

28. —  The  wvreworm  of 

Drasteria  e  lega  ns,  until  June  OI  the  IOl- 

enlarged  seven  dia-  .  ...... 

meters  {after  Forbes),  lowing  year,  CiOUbtleSS 

breeding  meanwhile;  and  that  it  lives 

two  seasons  in  the  earth  as  a  wireworm.  — Caudal  segment  of  the 

5.  Crypiohypnus  abbreviate ,  Say.  eiegans,  mJuch  enlarged , 
We  met  with  a  few  wireworms  of  {after  Forbes). 
this  species  in  old  sod  land.  The  beetle  has  been  known  since 
1823,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  throughout  North  America.  It 
is  a  robust  beetle,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  of 

a  brownish-black  color  with  a  greenish-bronze 
lustre.  (For  detailed  descriptions  see  bulletin 
33,  p.  270,  or  Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc.,  1891,  p.  7.) 

The  wireworms  are  from  7  mm.  to9  mm.  in 
length  when  mature,  and  closely  resemble  the 
30  —Drasterias  eie-  young  worms  of  Asciphes  decoloratus  (Fg.  22). 

gans,  the  adult  ' 

natural  size  and  They  are  of  a  dark  waxy-yellow  color  and  consid- 

enlarged. 


56 


Bulletin  107. 


31. —  Wireworm  of  Crypto- 
hypnus  abbreviatus.  a,  b ,  c) 
details  of  the  mouth-parts;  e 
the  caudal  segment — all  en¬ 
larged. 


erably  flattened  in  form.  The  caudal 
segment  and  some  details  of  the  mouth 
parts  are  shown  in  figure  31.  (For  a 
detailed  description  see  Bulletin  33,  p. 
271.) 


The  Bud  Moth. 


57 


THE  BUD  MOTH. 

Tmetocera  ocellana. 

This  bud  moth  has  come  to  be  recognized  by  many  of  the  most 
extensive  apple  growers  in  western  New  York  as  the  most  injuri¬ 
ous  and  hardest  to  fight  of  any  insect  now  present  in  their 
orchards.  It  works  in  the  opening  leaf  (Fig.  32)  and  flower 


32. —  Work  of  the  bud  moth  in  opening  leaf  buds. 
buds  (see  frontispiece),  and  often  nearly  the  whole  crop  on  many 
trees  is  destroyed  while  yet  in  the  bud.  It  is  also  especially 
destructive  when  it  attacks  recently  budded  or  grafted  trees  and 
nursery  stock.  Besides  apple,  it  also  feeds  upon  pear,  plum, 
cherry,  quince,  and  peach  trees,  and  blackberry  buds. 

Thus  fruit  growers  have  to  fear,  in  the  bud  moth,  a  pest  which 
is  capable  of  literally  ‘  ‘  nipping  in  the  bud  ’  ’  a  prospective  crop 
of  fruit,  a  graft,  or  a  budded  stock. 

Its  History  and  Distribution. 

As  the  insect  had  been  known  in  Europe  for  more  than  half  a 
century  before  it  was  recorded  in  this  country,  it  is,  therefore,  no 


58 


Bulletin  107. 


doubt  an  imported  species,  attained  economic  importance  in 
Europe  about  1840,  and  was  first  discovered  in  this  country  in 
1841  in  Massachusetts  where  it  was  doing  considerable  damage  ; 
by  1869,  it  had  come  to  be  “the  most  injurious  enemy  of  the 
apple-tree,  next  to  the  canker-worm,  in  the  State.”  The  same 
year  it  did  some  damage  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1870,  plum  trees 
were  attacked  by  it  in  Canada.  The  first  record  of  the  occurrence 
of  the  insect  in  New  York  State  is  in  1880  in  a  Union  Springs 
nursery.  The  previous  year  it  was  found  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
and  by  1885  it  had  reached  Nova  Scotia.  In  1887,  it  was  quite 
injurious  near  Rochester,  N.  Y. ,  and  in  1888  and  1890  apple  and 
blackberry  buds  were  injured  in  Maine.  Throughout  Massachu¬ 
setts,  New  York,  and  Canada,  the  insect  appeared  in  very 
destructive  numbers  in  1891,  and  in  Michigan  in  1892.  It  has 
been  found  in  Missouri,  and  two  or  three  years  ago  was  intro¬ 
duced  into  Idaho. 

The  bud  moth  is  thus  widely  distributed  over  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States,  and  Canada  ;  it  occurs  as  far  south  as  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C-,  and  as  far  west  as  Idaho. 

How  It  is  Spread. 

The  active  moths  doubtless  fly  readily  from  orchard  to  orchard 
and  thus  the  pest  may  slowly  spread.  But  a  much  more  fruitful 
source  of  infestation  is  to  be  found  in  nursery  stock.  We  have 
seen  the  insect  at  work  in  several  nurseries,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
it  was  introduced  into  Idaho  on  stock  received  from  one  of  our 
New  York  nurseries.  Its  manner  of  hibernating  makes  its  dis 
tribution  very  easy  on  nursery  stock. 

Its  Name  and  Classification. 

The  bud  moth  is  closely  allied  to  the  codlin  moth,  and  resem¬ 
bles  the  latter  in  size  and  form,  but  differs  in  structure,  in  color¬ 
ing,  and  in  its  habits  and  life-history. 

A  spot,  somewhat  eye-like  in  appearance,  on  each  front  wing 
of  the  moth  suggested  its  name — ocellana — which  was  given  to  it 
in  Austria  in  1776.  The  popular  name — eye-spotted  bud  moth — 
first  used  by  Dr.  Harris  in  1841,  is  now  in  common  use.  The 
moth  has  been  described  under  five  different  names,  and  has  been 


Thk  Bud  Moth. 


59 


placed  in  six  different  genera.  The  genus  Tmetocera  (“cut¬ 
horned,”  from  the  notched  appearance  of  the  base  of  the  antennae 
of  the  male  moth)  was  established  in  1859  f°r  the  reception  of 
this  insect  which  still  remains  its  only  representative. 

How  Its  Presence  is  Indicated. 


The  caterpillars  of  the  bud  moth  are  astir  early  in  the  spring, 
usually  about  May  1st,  and  soon  begin  their  destructive  work  on 
the  swelling  and  opening  fruit  and  leaf  buds.  They  eat  into  the 
buds,  and  often  so  check  and  disfigure  a  small  tree  as  to  spoil  its 
symmetry.  More  often  the  caterpillar  does  not  begin  its  work 
until  the  buds  are  -nearly  half  opened.  It  then  feeds  upon  the 
central  expanding  leaves  or  flowers,  tying  them  together  with 
silken  threads  (see  the  frontispiece,  and  figure  32).  Some  of  the 
partly  eaten  leaves  soon  turn  brown  and  thus  render  the  work  of 
the  insect  quite  conspicuous ;  one  correspondent  wrote  that  his 
trees  looked  as  though  a  fire  had  swept  quickly  through  them,  as 
so  many  leaves  had  turned  brown.  This  tying  together  of  the 
opening  leaves  and  flowrers  and  the  brown  appearance  of  many  of 
them,  are  the  most  characteristic  indications  of  the  presence  of  the 
insect. 


Its  Appearance. 


33. — Caterpillar  of  the  bud  moth 
about  three  times  natural  size. 


The  caterpillar. — It  is  in  this  stage  that  this  insect  is  familiar  to 
fruit-growers.  It  appears  on  the  buds  in  the  spring  as  a  little 
brown  caterpillar,  about  .16  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  black  head  and  thoracic 
shield.  In  June,  when  the  caterpillars 
are  full-grown  (Fig.  33)  they  are  about 
half  an  inch  in  length  and  are  of  a  cin¬ 
namon  brown  color  ;  the  head,  thor¬ 
acic  shield,  and  true  legs  are  black.  The  body  is  sparsely  hairy, 
and  bears  five  pairs  of  pro-legs. 

The  pupa. — This  quiescent  stage  of  the  insect  is  passed  in  the 
nests  in  the  latter  part  of  June  in  a  tube  of  dead  leaves.  Two 
views  of  a  pupa  are  shown  in  figure  34.  It  is  about  27  of  an 
inch  in  length  and  of  a  light  brown  color  ;  the  dorsum  of  each 
abdominal  segment  bears  two  transverse  rows  of  small  tooth-like 
processes  directed  caudad. 


6o 


Bulletin  107. 


The  moth. — The  moth  (Fig.  35)  measures  about  three-fifths  of 

an  inch  across  its  expanded  wings. 
It  is  of  a  general  dark  ash-grey  col¬ 
or  with  a  broad  cream  white  band 
across  the  front  wings.  Dr.  Harris 
saw  the  resemblance  to  two  eye-like 
spots  in  the  arrangement  of  two 
short  horizontal  black  dashes  fol¬ 
lowed  by 

a  b  a  verti  c  a  1 

34. — Pupa  of  the  bud  moth  ;  o,  ventral  S  t  X  e  ak  of 
view ;  b,  dorsal  view — enlarged.  ,  j  i  i 

lead  blue 

near  the  anal  angle  of  the  front  wings, 
and  in  the  three  or  four  similar  black 
dashes,  also  followed  by  a  streak  of  lead  35 Tn‘  bud  ad"“ 

J  insect ,  twice  natural  size. 

blue,  near  the  apex  of  these  wings. 

Its  Life-History. 

Although  the  caterpillar  and  pupa  of  the  bud  moth  were 
known  more  than  eighty  years  ago,  its  true  life-history,  as 
observed  by  Mr.  J.  Fletcher,  the  Canadian  Government  entomol¬ 
ogist,  and  the  writer,  was  not  recorded  until  1892  (Report  of 
Entomologist  for  Dept.  Agr.  Canada,  1891,  p.  195). 

Its  appearance  and  habits  in  the  spring. — The  date  of  the 
emergence  of  the  little  brown  caterpillars  from  their  winter  retreats 
varies  considerably  in  this  State.  They  seem  to  time  their  ap¬ 
pearance  by  the  date  at  which  the  buds  begin  to  open.  Thus  the 
earliness  or  lateness  of  the  season  or  of  the  variety  of  the  tree  in¬ 
fested  will  vary  the  time  from  two  to  four  weeks,  ranging  from 
April  15  to  May  15. 

In  some  cases  the  caterpillar  appears  before  the  bud  has  opened 
sufficiently  for  it  to  readily  enter.  It  is  then  forced  to  eat  its 
way  into  the  bud.  Once  within  the  bud  it  revels  in  the  very  ten¬ 
der  growing  leaves  or  flower  buds,  tying  them  together  with  its 
silken  threads,  and  thus  forming  for  itself  a  well  protected  nest 
within  which  its  destructive  work  goes  on  (Figs.  32  and  36).  It 
does  not  confine  its  work  to  one  or  two  leaves  or  flowers,  but 
seems  to  delight  in  devouring  a  part  of  a  leaf  here  or  one  side  of 
a  developing  flower  there.  So  that  nearly  every  leaf  or  flower  in 


The  Bud  Moth. 


6  i 


the  opening  bud  is  forced  to  contribute  to  the  greed  of  the  little 
creature,  thus  greatly  increasing  its  destructiveness. 

It  is  especially  destructive  on  young  trees  or  nursery  stock  as 
it  then  most  often  attacks  the  terminal  buds,  sometimes  burrow- 


36. —  Characteristic  nest  of  the  bud  moth  caterpillar ; 
and  several  of  the  curious  eggs ,  greatly  enlarged , 
laid  by  the  moth. 

If  the  leaf  which  it  has  selected  as  its  final  home  should  become 
too  weak  at  the  place  where  it  has  been  cut  so  that  there  may  be 
danger  of  its  falling  to  the  ground  ;  then  the  larva  goes  to  work 
and  either  strengthens  it  with  silk  which  is  fastened  to  the  twig 
and  petiole  or  ties  the  apical  portion  of  the  tube  to  another  leaf 
or  cuts  that  part  of  the  leaf  which  contains  its  tube  from  the  rest 
of  the  leaf,  so  that  either  the  whole  or  only  that  portion  which 
contains  the  tube  hangs  suspended  from  another  leaf.”  The 
larva  lives  in  this  tube  most  of  the  time,  only  coming  forth  to 
feed  ;  when  disturbed  it  retreats  into  the  tube  out  of  sight.  In 
feeding  it  draws  other  leaves,  one  after  another,  toward  it  and 


ing  down  the  shoot  for 
two  or  three  inches  caus¬ 
ing  it  to  die,  and  thus 
greatly  marring  the  sym¬ 
metry  of  the  tree. 

The  later  work  of  the 
caterpillars  in  the  open¬ 
ing  leaves  has  been  well 
described  by  Professor 
Comstock  as  follows  : 

44  The  larva  settles  on 
one  of  the  more  advanced 
leaves,  of  which  it  cuts 
the  petiole  half  through 
either  near  its  base  or 
close  to  the  leaf  so  that 
it  wilts.  Of  this  half 
dead  leaf  it  forms  a  sort 
of  tube  by  rolling  the 
edge  of  one  side  more  or 
less  down  and  fastening 
it  with  silken  threads 
and  then  lining  the  in¬ 
side  sparsely  with  silk. 


62 


Bulletin  107. 


fastens  them  with  threads  of  silk,  thus  forming  a  nest  (Fig.  36). 


Some  of  these  partially  devoured  leaves  soon  turn  brown  and  die, 


thus  rendering  the  nest  quite  conspicuous. 

The  caterpillars  continue  to  feed  in  the  spring,  mostly  at  night, 
for  six  or  seven  weeks,  and  probably  shed  their  skin  three  times 
during  this  time. 

Pupation. — Within  a  tube,  usually  formed  in  the  nest  by  rolling 
up  one  side  of  a  leaf  or  by  bringing  together  two  or  three  half 
devoured  leaves  and  securely  fastening  everything  with  silken 
threads,  the  full-grown  caterpillar  retreats  and  lines  the  interior 
with  a  thin  closely  woven  layer  of  silk.  This  forms  the  cocoon 
within  which  the  caterpillar  is  soon  to  undergo  its  wonderful 
change  to  a  pupa.  The  date  of  this  change  varies  in  this  State  from 
June  1st  to  the  25th.  About  ten  days  are  spent  as  a  pupa,  then 
by  the  aid  of  the  tooth-like  hooks  on  its  back,  it  works  its  way 
nearly  out  of  the  cocoon,  and  its  skin  splits  open  to  allow  the 
pretty  little  mgth  to  emerge. 

Habits  of  the  moth. — The  moths  begin  to  appear  as  early  as 
June  5th  in  our  State,  and  often  all  have  not  emerged  by  July  10th. 
They  are  most  active  during  the  night,  remaining  quiet  during 
the  day  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  of  the  tree,  with  wings  folded 
roof-wise  ;  in  this  position  they  closely  mimic  the  bark.  They 
probably  live  about  two  or  three  weeks. 

Egg-laying. — Three  or  four  days  after  emerging,  the  moths  be¬ 
gin  to  lay  eggs,  working  mostly  at  night.  They  are  laid  on  the 
leaves  singly  or  in  small  clusters  slightly  overlapping  each  other. 
They  are  curious  objects  (Figs.  36  and  37).  In  fact  they  so 
closely  resemble  minute  drops  of  water  or  a  fish’s  scale  on  the 
leaf  as  to  necessitate  the  use  of  a  lens  to  determine  the  egg  char¬ 
acteristics.  They  are  very  transparent  and  will  reflect  the  pris¬ 
matic  colors  like  a  drop  of  water. 


They  are  disc-like,  very  much  flattened, 
usually  oval  in  outline,  a  few  are  circular,  and 
measure  .8  mm.  by  .7  mm.  A  flat  outer  rim 
.2  mm.  wide  adheres  closely  to  the  leaf,  leav¬ 
ing  a  central  slightly  elevated  rounded  disc 


in  which  the  larva  develops.  About  nine  days 


The;  Bud  Moth. 


63 


tion  can  be  plainly  seen  through  the  shell.  The  egg- stage  lasts 
from  seven  to  ten  days. 

Summer  habits  of  the  caterpillar. — Soon  after  emerging  through 
a  hole  near  the  edge  of  the  central  portion  of  the  egg-shell,  the 
little  greenish  caterpillar  begins  to  feed  upon  the  skin  of  the  leaf, 
usually  upon  the  underside.  A  few  hours  later  it  makes  for  itself 
a  tube  of  silk  open  at  both  ends  and  usually  made  alongside  the 
mid- rib.  From  these  silken  homes  the  caterpillars  sally  forth  to 
feed  upon  the  surrounding  tissues,  protecting  themselves  as  they 
go  by  a  thin  layer  of  silk  spun  over  their  feeding  grounds  (Fig. 
38).  They  feed  upon  one 
epidermis  and  the  inner 
tissues  of  the  leaf,  leaving 
the  net-work  of  veinlets  ; 
the  opposite  epidermis 
forms  the  floor  of  its  feed¬ 
ing  grounds.  The  vein- 
lets  and  the  epidermis 

SOOn  turn  brown,  thus  ^g — Leaf  showing  the  work  of  a  young  caterpillar 

rendering  the  summer  during  the  summer. 

work  of  the  insect  quite  conspicuous.  Rarely  more  than  one 

caterpillar  works  on  a  leaf. 

The  caterpillars  continue  to  feed  in  this  manner  during  July  and 
August,  and  apart  of  September.  Soon  after  the  third  or  fourth 
moulting  of  the  skin,  they  cease  feeding  and  seem  to  know  in¬ 
stinctively  that  they  have  reached  that  point  in  their  develop¬ 
ment  when  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  make  preparations  to  go 
into  winter  quarters,  even  though  it  be  several  weeks  yet  before 

the  leaves  become  unfit 
for  food,  or  fall  from  the 
trees. 

Hibernation. — Our  ob¬ 
servations  in  1891  and 
1892  definitely  showed 
that  the  bud  moth  passes 
the  winter  as  a  half- 
grown  caterpillar  snugly 
hidden  in  a  silken  case  on  the  tree.  Figure  39  represents  a  twig, 
natural  size,  bearing  three  of  these  hibernacula  at  a ,  a ,  and  b. 


39. —  Twig  showing  the  position  of  the  winter  homes 
of  the  caterpillar  at  a,  a,  and  b ,  natural  size. 


64 


Bulletin  107. 


These  little  winter  homes  are  very  inconspicuous  objects  as  they 
are  scarcely  more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  cov¬ 
ered  with  bits  of  dirt  from  the  bark  or  are  sometimes  made  under 
some  convenient  piece  of  dead  leaf  or  bud-scale.  One  must  be  very 
familiar  with  these  hibernacula  to  be  able  to  find  them,  even  on  a 
badly  infested  tree.  The  caterpillars  begin  to  go  into  winter 
quarters  early  in  August  and  all  are  snugly  tucked  away  before 
the  leaves  fall.  They  instinctively  build  their  winter  homes  near 
the  winter  buds  on  the  twigs  so  they  may  be  at  hand  to  nip  the 
bud  upon  its  showing  any  signs  of  opening  in  the  spring.  The 
life-cycle  is  completed  with  the  opening  of  spring  and  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  little  brown  caterpillars  on  the  buds. 

Number  of  broods. — There  is  but  one  generation  of  the  insect 
in  a  year  in  this  and  more  northern  latitudes.  The  moth  appears 
and  lays  her  eggs  in  June  or  July,  and  the  caterpillars  feed  upon 
the  leaves  until  half-grown,  in  which  stage  they  hibernate.  Pos¬ 
sibly  two  broods  may  occur  further  south. 

Its  Natural  Enemies. 

In  Europe,  five  parasites  are  recorded  at  work  upon  this  insect. 
Three  parasites  (Phytodictus  vulgaris , Pimpla  sp.  and  Microdus  lati- 
cinctus)  have  been  reared  from  it  in  this  country  ;  the  latter  species 
seems  to  be  quite  common  in  some  localities. 

•Besides  these  parasitic  enemies,  the  bud  moth  is  sometimes 
eaten  by  birds  in  Canada,  and  we  also  found  a  large  wasp  ( Odyn - 
erus  catskillensis)  storing  its  cell  with  the  caterpillars  which  must 
furnish  delicious  morsels  for  the  grub  of  the  wasp  when  it  hatches. 

Doubtless  all  of  these  foes  aid  considerably  in  keeping  the  pest 
in  check,  but  it  has  now  become  so  numerous  and  wide  spread 
that  its  enemies  are  insufficient  and  the  devices  of  man  must  be 
called  into  action. 

Methods  of  Preventing  its  Ravages. 

This  insect  is  proving  an  exceedingly  hard  one  to  combat.  It 
cannot  be  effectively  and  practicably  fought  while  in  the  adult  or 
egg  stages,  and  there  is  but  little  hopes  of  reaching  the  cater¬ 
pillars  in  their  hibernacula  during  the  winter.  Although  the 
caterpillars  work  under  a  silken  covering  on  the  undersides  of  the 


Thk  Bud  Moth. 


65 


leaves  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer,  it  may  be  possible  to 
kill  some  of  them  with  a  Paris  green  spray,  but  we  doubt  it. 
The  pupae  can  be  reached  only  by  hand-picking  the  nests  during 
the  ten  days  in  June  which  the  insect  passes  in  this  stage.  Thus, 
so  far  as  we  now  know,  the  most  vulnerable  period  in  the  life- 
cycle  of  the  bud  moth  is  during  the  last  half  of  its  caterpillar  life 
when  it  is  at  work  upon  the  opening  buds,  leaves  and  flowers. 

We  once  saw  a  case  where  hand-picking  could  have  been  profit¬ 
ably  practiced.  A  block  of  young  pear  trees  had  become  badly 
infested,  and  each  caterpillar’s  nest  was  rendered  conspicuous  by 
one  or  two  brown,  dead  leaves.  All  of  the  then  nearly  full-grown 
caterpillars  could  have  been  quickly  killed  by  collecting  and  burn¬ 
ing  their  nests ;  this  would  have  effectually  prevented  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  insect  another  year.  One  man  could  have  thus 
exterminated  the  pest  in  that  block  of  a  thousand  or  more  young 
trees  in  a  very  short  time.  This  method  may  prove  practicable 
in  many  cases  where  nursery  stock  becomes  infested.  The  nests 
should  be  gathered  before  June  1st. 

Although  hand-picking  is  the  surest  method  of  checking  the 
insect,  it  is  impracticable  on  large  trees,  and  besides,  by  the  time 
the  work  of  the  caterpillar  has  progressed  far  enough  to  render  its 
nest  conspicuous,  it  has  done  most  of  its  damage.  Fruit  growers 
cannot  afford  to  wait  until  after  the  developing  fruit  and  new 
growth  are  “  nipped  in  the  bud  ”  before  placing  any  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  this  insect. 

We  believe  the  pest  can  be  reached  with  an  arsenical  spray  ap¬ 
plied  frequently  and  thoroughly .  It  will  necessitate  at  least  two 
thorough  applications  before  the  floivers  open.  If  possible,  keep 
the  swelling  and  opening  buds  coated  with  Paris’  green  so  that  the 
little  caterpillar’s  first  meal  in  the  spring  will  be  a  poisonous  one. 
In  order  that  the  spraying  should  be  thoroughly  done  at  this  time, 
fruit  growers  should  realize  that  if  the  insect  is  not  killed  before 
the  blossoms  open  they  will  not  have  another  chance  to  do  it 
nearly  so  effectively  until  the  next  spring. 

If  the  trees  are  usually  badly  infested  with  the  apple  scab  or 
other  fungi  it  would  be  well  to  combine  the  Paris  green  with  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  and  in  this  case  using  about  one  pound  of  the 
poison  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  the  fungicide ;  the  poison  will 


66 


Bulletin  107. 


adhere  longer  if  applied  with  the  fungicide.  If  Paris  green  only 
is  applied,  use  about  one  pound  to  two  hundred  gallons  and  al¬ 
ways  add  two  or  three  pounds  of  freshly  slacked  lime  to  prevent 
the  burning  effects  of  the  free  arsenic  in  the  Paris  green.  Take 
especial  pains  to  thoroughly  wet  the  buds  on  the  smallest  twigs. 
With  at  least  two  thorough  applications  of  Paris  green  before  the 
flowers  open  we  believe  this  insect  can  be  effectively  checked  for 
the  season.  Do  not  spray  when  the  trees  are  in  bloom  as  many 
honey-bees  may  be  killed. 

The  limited  time  during  which  this  bud  moth  can  be  reached 
by  sprays  renders  it  an  especially  hard  insect  to  fight.  It  will 
require  thoughtful,  intelligent,  and  persistent  work  early  in  the 
spring  to  hold  it  in  check. 

Mark  Vernon  Slingkrland. 


Bulletin  108.  January,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

ENTOMOLOGICAL  DIVISION. 


THE  PEAR  PSYLLA 


AND 


NEW  YORK 


PLUM  SCALE. 


By  M.  V.  SLINGERLAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY. 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob 

Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Gould  Schurman. 

Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture, 
cj  -  Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ----- 
E.  L.  WILLIAMS,  - 
H.  W.  Smith,  - 

ASSISTANTS. 

M.  V.  Slingerland,  - 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 

E.  G.  Lodeman,  .... 

L.  A.  Clinton,  - 

E.  J.  Durand,  ----- 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 

Horticulture. 

Agriculture. 

Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

\  The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  The  New  York  Plum  Scale. 


I.  THE  PEAR  PSYLLA  * 


Psylla  pyricola  Forster. 

During  the  past  five  years  this  minute  insect  has  inflicted  such 
severe  losses  upon  pear  growers  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
that  it  threatens  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  successful  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  this  fruit. 

Its  History,  Distribution  and  Destructiveness. 

The  insect  is  an  old  offender,  and  like  most  of  our  other  import¬ 
ed  insect  pests,  it  has  wrought  much  more  destruction  here  than 
in  Europe,  its  native  home.  It  was  probably  first  introduced  into 
this  country  upon  young  pear  trees  imported  from  Europe  in  1832 
by  Dr.  Ovid  Plumb  of  Salisbury,  Conn.  ;f  during  the  next  five 
years  he  lost  several  hundred  trees  from  its  ravages.  By  1848  it 
had  spread  into  Massachusetts  and  into  Dutchess  and  Columbia 
counties  in  New  York.  It  is  not  again  recorded  as  injurious 
until  1871,  and  then  in  Illinois  ;  this  State  seems  yet  to  be  the 
western  limit  of  its  range.  In  1879,  it  was  destructive  at  Ithaca 
and  at  Saratoga,  N.  Y.  A  dozen  years  passed  without  any  record 
of  its  injury.  Then  in  1891  it  suddenly  appeared  in  enormous 
numbers  in  restricted  localities  in  quite  widely  separated  portions 
of  this  and  other  states,  and  thousands  of  dollars  worth  of  fruit 
and  many  valuable  trees  were  ruined  by  its  ravages.  Pear  orch¬ 
ards  at  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  Meriden,  Conn.,  and  Pomona,  Md., 
were  devastated.  In  this  State,  it  was  especially  destructive,  or¬ 
chards  in  the  eastern,  central  and  western  portions  suffering 
severely,  many  trees  ultimately  dying.  One  orchard  near  Ithaca 

*This  insect  was  discussed  in  detail  in  Bulletin  44,  issued  in  October,  1892. 
There  was  so  great  a  demand  for  the  bulletin  that  the  issue  was  exhausted  in 
about  a  year.  While  this  discussion  includes  an  abstract  of  bulletin  44,  it 
also  contains  much  new  material,  especially  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of 
the  insect,  its  natural  enemies,  and  to  the  methods  of  fighting  it. 

f  The  evidence  submitted  by  Dr.  bintner  (Ninth  Rept.  p.  319)  to  show 
that  this  insect  “may  have  been  operating  in  the  State  of  New  York  as  early 
as  in  1824,  if  not  in  the  preceding  century,”  is  far  from  conclusive. 


70 


Bulletin  108. 


promised  600  bushels  of  fruit,  but  less  than  50  matured  ;  and  Mr. 
G.  T.  Powell  at  Ghent  had  an  estimated  yield  of  1,200  barrels  re¬ 
duced  to  less  than  100  barrels  of  marketable  fruit. 

At  the  time  we  wrote  bulletin  44  (1892),  the  insect  was  known 
to  occur  only  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Illinois 
and  possibly  in  Michigan  ;  its  occurrence  in  Maryland,  noted 
above,  was  not  recorded  until  1894. 

In  1892  it  was  found  abundant  in  Ohio.  In  1893  it  was  discov¬ 
ered  in  New  Jersey,  and  we  also  received  it  from  Thomaston,  Me. 
In  1894  it  was  found  to  be  quite  generally  distributed  over  New 
Jersey  and  had  appeared  in  Canada  (Freeman,  Ont.)  and  Virginia 
for  the  first  time.  The  same  year  it  invaded  a  Maryland  orchard 
(Chestertown,  Md.)  of  over  20,000  trees  in  overwhelming  num¬ 
bers,  and  was  quite  destructive  to  several  orchards  in  western 
New  York.  This  year  (1895)  we  have  learned  of  no  serious  out¬ 
breaks  of  the  pest.  We  have,  however,  received  it  from  Clinton, 
Mich.,  where  it  did  considerable  damage  in  1894. 

We  believe  the  insect  is  now  present  in  alarming  numbers  in 
most  of  the  pear  orchards  in  New  York  State.  We  have  not  fail¬ 
ed  to  find  it  in  any  orchard,  examined  for  this  purpose,  in  west¬ 
ern  New  York,  especially  in  Niagara  county  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rochester.  Specimens  have  been,  sent  us  from  Coxsackie,  Pa¬ 
vilion,  Milton,  Carlton,  and  Dansville,  N.  Y.  ;  and  it  has  been 
recorded  from  Athens,  Menands,  Catskill  and  Baltimore,  N.  Y. 

Thus  the  range  of  the  insect  has  been  greatly  increased  since 
1892.  It  now  ranges  from  Maine  southward  through  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Maryland  and  into  Virginia  ; 
and  westward  through  New  York,  Canada,  Ohio  and  Illinois  to 
the  Mississippi  river,  beyond  which  it  has  not  yet  been  recorded. 

How  it  Spreads. 

In  spite  of  its  wide  distribution,  it  seems  to  be  rather  a  local 
insect,  and  its  spread  from  orchard  to  orchard  rather  slow.  Some 
of  Coe  Brothers’  orchards  at  Meriden,  Conn.,  have  been  badly  in¬ 
fested  for  fifteen  years  and  yet  it  had  not  appeared  (in  1892)  in 
one  orchard  set  in  1881  only  half  a  mile  distant. 

Our  New  York  nurserymen  are  reported  to  be  responsible  for 
its  introduction  into  Maryland,  Virginia,  New  Jersey,  and  Canada. 
In  nearly  every  case,  it  is  claimed,  the  source  of  infestation  can 


The  Pear  Psylla. 


7i 


be  directly  traced  to  pear  stocks  bought  of  New  York  nurserymen 
in  1890  or  1891,  or  about  the  time  the  pest  was  so  numerous  in 
this  State.  It  is  supposed  that  the  hibernating  form  of  the  insect 
is  thus  distributed. 

Its  Classification  and  Name. 

This  pear  pest  is  one  of  the  true  bugs  and  belongs  to  the  family 
Psyllidae ,  commonly  known  as  jumping  plant-lice  from  the  leap¬ 
ing  habit  of  the  adult  insects.  Thirty-four  species  of  Psyllids 
have  thus  far  been  described  from  the  United  States. 

Psylla  pyricola ,  although  it  was  observed  in  this  country  in 
1833,  received  its  name  in  Europe  fifteen  years  later.  Previous 
to  1 84  8,  European  writers  had  referred  to  the  species  as  Psylla pyri, 
not  distinguishing  it  from  that  species.  Psylla  pyricola  sometimes 
attacks  the  apple-tree  in  Europe,  but  it  seems  to  confine  its  attacks 
to  the  pear  in  this  country. 

Indications  of  its  Presence. 

During  severe  attacks  of  this  pest,  old  trees  put  forth  but  little 
new  growth,  new  shoots  often  droop  and  wither  in  May,  the 
leaves  turn  yellow  and  the  fruit  grows  but  little,  and  in  midsum¬ 
mer  the  leaves  and  half- formed  fruit  often  fall  from  the  trees. 
The  insect  also  indicates  its  presence  by  secreting  large  quantities 
of  a  sweet,  wTater-like,  sticky  liquid  called  “  hone}'  dew”  which 
often  covers  all  parts  of  the  tree  ;  it  has  literally  rained  from  the 
leaves  in  some  cases  and  smeared  the  backs  of  horses  during  cul¬ 
tivation.*  A  black  fungus  soon  grows  all  through  this  honey- 
dew  and  thus  gives  the  tree  a  disgusting  blackish  appearance  as 
if  treated  with  a  thin  coat  of  black  paint  or  soot.  Pear  trees  of 
all  varieties  and  ages  are  attacked  in  this  State. 

Although  the  indications  of  the  presence  of  some  enemy  is  so 
conspicuous,  the  depredator  is  so  small  as  to  be  easily  overlooked. 

*  During  the  severe  attack  in  Maryland  in  1894,  “  the  leaves  were  scarcely 
at  all  yellowed,  but  were  covered  with  dead  and  dry  patches  or  spots,  some¬ 
times  invading  almost  the  entire  leaf.”  It  seemed  to  be  due  “  to  the  sun- 
scalding  resulting  from  the  collection  of  the  honey-dew  on  the  leaves  in 
large  drops.” 


72 


Bulletin  108. 


Its  Appearance. 

The  immature  insect. — These  curious,  minute,  oval,  immature 
forms  are  called  nymphs.  The  newly-hatched  ones  (Fig.  43)  are 

yellow  in  color,  with  crimson  eyes, 
and  can  scarcely  be  seen  with  the 
unaided  eye.  During  their  growth 
they  gradually  acquire  the  black 
markings,  shown  in  the  frontispiece 
and  in  figure  40,  and  become  tinged 
with  red.  A  very  conspicuous  fea¬ 
ture  in  the  full-grown  nymph  is  the 
large  black  wing-pads  on  each  side 
of  the  body. 

The  adult  insect. — In  this  form 
(Fig.  41)  the  insect  strikingly  resem¬ 
bles  a  cicada  or  dog-day  harvest-fly 
in  miniature.  Its  general  color  is 
crimson  with  broad  black  bands  across  the  abdo¬ 
men.  Its  thickened  femora  enable  it  to  jump 
like  a  flea.  In  the  male  insect  the  abdomen 
terminates  in  a  large  trough-shaped  segment 
from  which  project  upward  three  narrow  copu¬ 
lating  organs  ;  the  end  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
female  resembles  a  bird’s  beak. 

Its  Tiee-History. 

But  little  was  known  of  the  life-history  of  the 
pear  psylla,  either  in  Europe  or  in  this  country,  4i  _Psylla  pyricoia 
previous  to  the  publication  of  our  bulletin  No.  44  the  adult  insect t 

much  enlarged . 

i'n  1892. 

How  it  passes  the  winter. — The  insect  hibernates  in  the  adult 
stage,  hidden  in  the  crevices  under  the  loosened  bark  on  the  trunk 
and  large  limbs  of  the  pear  trees  ;  a  favorite  hiding  place  on  some 
trees  is  in  the  cavity  formed  by  the  bark  growing  about  the  scar 
of  a  severed  limb.  During  warm  days  they  often  crawl  about  on 
the  branches  and  trunk.  They  are  not  easily  seen  as  they  are  so 
small  and  their  color  so  closely  imitates  the  bark. 

Egg- laying  of  the  winter  brood. — During  the  first  warm  spring 
weather  the  adults  come  from  their  hiding  places,  copulate,  and 


The  Pear  Psyeea. 


73 


egg-laying  soon  begins.  In  this  State,  most  of  the  eggs  are  usu¬ 
ally  laid  before  April  25.  They  are  placed  in  the  creases  of  the 
bark,  or  in  old  leaf  scars,  about  the  bases  of  the  terminal  buds  of 
the  preceding  year’s  growth  ;  some  occur  about  the  side  buds 
near  the  terminal  ones.  They  are  usually  laid 
singly  but  rows  of  eight  or  ten  sometimes 
occur.  The  eggs  (Fig.  42)  are  scarcely  visible 

to  the  unaided  eye;  it  would  take  eighty  of  42  —Egg  of  pear  psyiia, 
them  placed  end  to  end  to  measure  an  inch,  greatly  enlarged. 

They  are  elongate  pyriform  in  shape,  smooth  and  shining,  and 
of  a  light  orange-yellow  color  when  first  laid,  becoming  darker 
before  hatching.  A  short  stalk  on  the  larger  end  attaches  the 
egg  to  the  bark,  and  a  long  thread-like  process  projects  from  the 
.smaller  end. 

The  temperature  conditions  in  the  spring  influence  the  time  of 
oviposition  and  the  duration  of  the  egg-state.  In  1892,  the  eggs 
were  from  seventeen  days  to  three  weeks  in  hatching.  Hatching 
usually  begins  about  May  10th.  By  the  18th,  most  of  the  nymphs 
are  out,  and  their  parents  have  disappeared. 

Habits  of  the  nymphs. — Immediately  after  emerging,  which 
usually  happens  about  the  time  the  leaves  are  expanding,  the 

minute  nymph  (Fig.  43)  seeks  its  favorite  feed¬ 
ing  place,  the  axils  of  the  leaf  petioles  and 
later  on  stems  of  the  forming  fruit.  When 
these  axils  become  full  they  gather  on  the 
leaves.  Their  food  consists  entirely  of  the  sap 
of  the  tree  which  they  suck  through  a  short, 
sharp,  beak.  Unless  disturbed,  they  move 
about  but  very  little,  sometimes  becoming 
covered  with  their  own  honey-dew.  They* 
stop  feeding  only  when  their  skin  gets  too 
small  and  they  cast  it  off  for  a  new  elastic  one  that  they  grow 
just  beneath  the  old  one. 

Habits  of  the  adult. — The  strong  legs  and  wings  of  the  adult 
enable  it  to  spring  up  and  fly  away  with  surprising  quickness 
upon  the  slightest  unnatural  jar.  The  hibernating  forms  are  not 
as  active,  and  are  readily  captured.  The  adults  also  feed  upon 
the  sap  by  means  of  a  sharp  beak,  but  seem  to  have  no  favorite 
feeding  place. 


43. — Ne  wly -hatched 
nymph  of  pear  psylla , 
ventral  view ,  greatly 
enla rged.  ( Re  du  c e  d 
from  figure  by  U.  S. 
Dept,  of  Agr.) 


74 


Bulletin  108. 


Egg-laying ,  and  habits  during  the  summer. — In  about  a  month 
after  emerging  from  the  egg  in  the  spring,  the  nymphs  become 
full  grown  and  at  the  last  casting  of  the  skin  the  adult  insects 
appear. 

This  first  brood,  appearing  about  June  io,  and  all  subsequent 
summer  broods  of  the  adults,  differ  strikingly  from  those  that 
hibernate.  The  winter  forms  differ  in  size,  being  nearly  one- third 
larger,  in  their  much  darker  coloring,  and  especial^  in  the  dark¬ 
er  coloration  of  the  front  wings.  Thus  in  this  pear  psylla  we 
have  a  case  of  true  dimorphism  ;  the  winter  form  had  been  de¬ 
scribed  as  a  distinct  species,  Psylla  simulans. 

In  about  a  week  after  their  transformation  from  the  nymph  stage, 
the  summer  adults  copulate  and  begin  laying  eggs  for  another 
brood.  These  eggs  do  not  differ  from  those  laid  by  the  winter 
forms,  but  they  are  laid  singly  or  in  groups,  not  on  the  bark  of 
the  twigs,  but  on  both  sides  of  the  leaves  tucked  in  among  the 
hairs  along  the  midrib  or  adroitly  placed  in  the  notches  of  the 
toothed  edge  of  the  leaf.  They  hatch  in  from  eight  to  ten  days. 

A  careful  study  was  made  of  one  generation  of  the  insect  in 
1892  and  the  many  interesting  details  then  learned  have  been  re¬ 
corded  in  bulletin  44.  It  was  found  that  the  nymphs  cast  their 
skin  five  times  at  intervals  of  from  three  to  seven  days,  the  adult 
insect  appearing  at  the  fifth  or  last  moult.  So  life-like  were  some 
of  the  cast- skins  as  they  were  left  on  the  leaves  by  the  nymphs, 
that  it  often  required  close  examination  with  a  lens  to  determine 
if  the  object  was  alive  or  only  a  nymph’s  cast  off  garment.  In 
each  stage  the  nymphs  secreted  globules  of  honey- dew  several 
times  larger  than  themselves.  Although  the  adults  feed,  they  do 
not  grow,  nor  do  not  seem  to  secrete  any  honey-dew,  but  void 
considerable  quantities  of  a  whitish  excrement.  The  summer 
adults  probably  live  for  less  than  a  month,  while  those  that  hiber¬ 
nate  remain  alive  for  at  least  six  months. 

Number  of  broods. — Our  observations  indicate  at  least  four 
broods  in  this  State  ;  the  adults  were  the  most  numerous  on  or 
about  June  15th,  July  20th,  August  20th,  and  September  25th,  or 
a  brood  appeared  about  once  a  month.  Apparently  a  fifth  brood 
appeared  in  Maryland  in  1894.  The  adults  emerging  in  Septem¬ 
ber  and  later  were  the  hibernating  form. 

Honey- dew  and  excrement. — The  honey-dew  occurs  in  such  im- 


The  Pear  Psylla. 


75 


mense  quantities  that  it  seems  almost  impossible  that  it  is  all 
secreted  by  the  nymphs,  and  yet  such  is  the  fact.  We  found  that 
one  nymph  secreted  at  least  four  drops  (i.  e.  four  minims)  before 
it  became  an  adult.  In  the  case  of  the  nymphs  most  of  the  food 
is  elaborated  into  honey  dew  ;  some  is  assimilated,  and  the  waste 
matter  voided  as  excrement.  The  adults,  however,  seem  to 
secrete  no  honey-dew,  and  consequently  they  void  considerable 
quantities  of  excrement. 

The  honey-dew  and  excrement  are  very  different  substances. 
The  former  is  a  clear  water-like  liquid  and  forms  into  globules 
when  secreted.  The  excrement,  however,  is  a  whitish  semi¬ 
solid  substance  which  is  voided  in  long  cylindrical  strings,  or 
minute  whitish  balls  which  roll  from  the  anus  like  quicksilver 
globules.  The  honey-dew  seems  to  be  secreted  from  the  anus 
with  the  excrement. 

Its  Natural  Enemies. 

When  we  wrote  in  1892,  no  enemies  of  the  pear  psylla  had 
been  recorded  ;  we  had  heard  rumors  that  a  lady-bug  beetle  was 
destroying  them  in  some  localities  but  there  was  nothing  definite. 

However,  during  the  outbreak  in  Maryland  in  1894,  at  least 
two  predaceous  insects  were  found  feeding  on  the  psyllas,  one  of 
which  did  very  efficient  work.  As  both  of  the  insects  are  com¬ 
mon  in  our  State,  pear-growers  should  learn  to  know  them.  One 
is  a  common  lace-winged  fly,  Chrysopa  oculata.  Its  various 
stages  are  well  illustrated  in  figure  44.  It  is  such  an  interesting 
creature  and  proved  such  an  efficient  foe  of  the  psylla  in  Mary¬ 
land  that  we  give  a  brief  sketch  of  its  life. 

The  adult  (Fig.  44,  U)  is  a  beautiful,  dainty  creature  with  its 
wings  and  body  of  a  pea-green  color,  and  with  a  pair  of  large 
eyes  that  shine  like  melted  gold.  It  is  a  very  helpless  creature, 
does  not  feed  at  all,  and  remains  concealed  in  low  grass  during 
the  day,  becoming  active  and  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  evening. 
It  emits  a  very  disgusting  odor  when  handled.  “  The  lace-wing 
is  a  prudent  mother  ;  she  knows  that  if  she  lays  her  eggs  to¬ 
gether  on  a  leaf  the  first  aphis-lion  (as  the  young  are  called)  that 
hatches  will  eat  for  its  first  meal  all  his  unhatched  brothers  and 
sisters.  She  guards  against  this  fratricide  by  laying  each  egg  on 
the  top  of  a  stiff  stalk  of  hard  silk  about  half  an  inch  high 


76 


Bulletin  108. 


(Fig.  4,  a).  Groups  of  these  eggs  are  very  pretty,  looking  like 
a  tiny  forest  of  white  stems  bearing  on  their  summits  round  glis¬ 
tening  fruit.  When  the  first  of  the  brood  hatches,  he  scrambles 
down  as  best  he  can  from  his  egg  perch  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf, 
and  runs  off,  quite  unconscious  that  the  rest  of  the  family  are  re¬ 
posing  in  peace  high  above  his  head.”  ( Comstock's  Manual  for 
the  Shidy  of  Insects ,  p.  181). 

Mr.  Marlatt,  who  observed  its  work  in  Maryland,  says  of  the 
young  aphis-lion  :  “On  approaching  the  egg  or  young  psy  11a 
nymyh,  it  immediately  grasps  it  between  its  long,  curved,  man¬ 
dible-like  organs,  which  amount  to  two  sucking  tubes,  between 
the  tips  of  which  the  egg  or  young  nymph  is  held  and  rolled  one 
way  and  the  other,  as  between  thumb  and  finger,  the  juicy  con¬ 
tents  being  in  the  meantime  rapidly  extracted  ;  the  dry  shell  is 
cast  aside,  the  whole  operation  frequently  taking  less  than  a  min¬ 
ute.  The  aphis-lion  is  an  extremely  hungry  one  and  is  always 
seeding.  It  eats  anything  that  comes  in  its  way,  is  totally  fear- 


44. — Chrysopa  oculata.  a ,  eggs  ;  b,  full-grown  larva  or  aphis-lion  ;  d,  larva 
devouring  a7i  adult  psylla  ;  e,  cocoon  ;  f  adult  insect  ;  g,  front  view  of  the 
head  of  the  adult — all  enlarged.  ( Reduced  from  figure  by  U.  S.  Dept, 
of  Agr.) 

less,  and  is  also,  unfortunately,  cannibalistic,  eating  its  own  kind 
with  great  readiness.  It  is  a  safe  estimate  to  say  that  one  aphis- 
lion  will  destroy  several  hundred  eggs  and  nymphs  of  the  psylla, 
in  addition  to  the  adults  which  it  will  destroy  (see  d  in  figure  44) 


The  Pear  Psyrra. 


77 


in  its  later  larval  growth.”  In  about  ten  days  the  aphis-lion  be¬ 
comes  fully  grown  (Fig  44,  b)  and  rolls  itself  up  into  a  tiny  ball 
and  weaves  around  it  a  glistening,  white  cocoon  ( e  in  figure  44), 
which  looks  like  a  seed-pearl.  Possibly  while  secluded  in  this 
pearly  cell  the  aphis-lion  repents  its  greedy,  murderous  ways,  and 
changes  in  spirit.  In  from  ten  to  fourteen  days,  a  neat  lid  is  cut 
from  the  upper  end  of  the  cocoon  (see  e  in  figure  44)  and  an  ac¬ 
tive  pupa*  wriggles  out,  from  which  in  an  hour  or  so  the  dainty 
lace-wing  emerges.  There  are  several  broods  of  this  predaceous 
enemy  of  the  psylla  during  the  year. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  lace- wing  may  see  fit  to  include  the 
pear  psylla  in  its  menu  in  New  York  State,  where  there  is  abun¬ 
dant  opportunity  for  it  to  do  our  pear  growers  as  efficient  service 
as  it  has  rendered  in  Maryland. 

The  other  insect  enemy  of  the  pear  psylla  is  the  very  common 
red  lady-bug  (. Adalia  bi punctata )  with  a  black  spot  on  each 
wing-cover 

(Fig- 45  >  A 
It  is  so 
common 
that  if  it 
can  be  in¬ 
duced  to 
feed  freely 
upon  the 
pear  psylla 
it  will 
prove  a 
very  effi¬ 
cient  aid  in  the  warfare  against  the  pest.  It  is  predaceous  in  both 
its  larval  (Fig.  45,  a )  and  adult  stages.  Mr.  Marlatt  saw  a  beetle 
with  an  adult  psylla  in  its  mandibles  in  the  Maryland  orchard  ; 


45. — Adalia  bipunctata.  a ,  larva;  d,  pupa  ;  e ,  adult — all 
enlarged.  (. Reduced  from  figure  by  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.  } 


*  Most  writers  state  that  the  adult  emerges  from  the  cocoon,  but,  as  was 
pointed  out  by  Dr.  Shimer  in  1865  and  by  Dr.  Riley  in  1869,  what  they  have 
called  th z. pseudo-imago  or  sub-imago  comes  from  the  cocoon.  The  names 
given  this  stage  of  the  insect  are  misleading,  as  they  properly  apply  to  a 
winged  stage  preceding  the  imago  stage  of  may  flies.  In  the  case  of  the 
lace-winged  flies,  their  pupce  are  sufficiently  active  to  force  their  way  out  of 
the  cocoon. 


78 


Bulletin  108. 


and  he  says  one  of  the  beetles  cleaned  the  eggs  from  the  leaves  of 
a  young  pear  tree  in  his  breeding  cage  about  as  fast  as  upwards  of 
50  to  75  psyllas  laid  them.  He  reared  from  the  egg  state  a  brood 
of  the  lady-bug  beetles  on  the  eggs  and  nymphs  of  the  pear 
psylla.  Our  correspondent  in  Clinton,  Mich.,  writes  that  he  has 
“  noticed  the  common  lady-bird  feeding  on  the  nymphs  of  the 
psylla.” 

Birds  have  been  seen  picking  the  adult  psyllas  out  of  their 
winter  retreats  in  Niagara  county  ;  so  industrious  were  the  birds 
that  but  few  psyllas  were  left  on  some  trees. 

How  to  Combat  the  Pear  Psylla. 

The  eggs. — Although  the  eggs  laid  early  in  the  spring  are 
freely  exposed  on  the  bark  to  the  action  of  insecticides,  yet  we 
were  surprised  to  find  that  many  of  them  hatched  after  they  had 
been  dipped  in  kerosene  oil,  turpentine,  benzine,  and  several  of 
the  washes  used  for  killing  scale  insects.  Mr.  Marlatt  reports 
that  in  July  he  killed  many  of  the  eggs  laid  on  the  leaves,  by 
spraying  with  a  kerosene  or  whale-oil  soap  emulsion  diluted  with 
from  seven  to  nine  parts  of  water.  However,  as  many  of  the  eggs 
cannot  be  killed  in  this  way  and  as  the  insect  can  be  combated 
much  more  effectively  in  another  stage,  we  do  not  consider  it  ad¬ 
visable  to  fight  it  in  the  egg-stage. 

The  nymphs. — Our  experiments  in  1892,  showed  that  the 
nymphs  in  all  stages  were  quickly  killed  by  kerosene  emulsion.* 
Others  who  have  tested  it  thoroughly  report  success. 

Usually  most  of  the  damage  is  done  in  this  State  by  the  first 
brood  of  nymphs  before  June  15th.  It  is  therefore  very  important 

*  The  formula  is  yz  pound  hard  or  soft  soap,  1  gallon  water,  2  gallons  kero¬ 
sene. 

First,  thoroughly  dissolve  the  soap  in  boiling  water.  While  this  solution 
is  still  very  hot  add  the  kerosene  ;  if  the  whole  is  then  left  over  the  fire  for  a 
few  moments  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  kerosene  slightly,  it  will  facili¬ 
tate  the  emulsifying  process.  Remove  from  the  fire  and  quickly  begin  to 
agitate  the  whole  mass  through  a  syringe  or  force  pump  of  some  kind  ;  draw 
the  liquid  into  the  pump  and  force  it  back  into  the  dish.  Continue  this 
operation  for  five  minutes  or  until  the  whole  mass  assumes  a  creamy  color 
and  consistency  which  will  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  not  glide  off 
like  oil.  If  desired  for  use  immediately,  it  may  now  be  readily  diluted  with 


The  Pear  Psylla. 


79 


that  the  insect  should  be  checked  early  in  the  season.  We  now 
advise  using  the  emulsion  diluted  with  about  fifteen  parts  of 
•  water,  instead  of  with  twenty-five,  as  it  is  more  effective  against 
the  nymphs,  and  it  will  also  kill  the  adult  insects.  As  the 
nymphs  begin  to  hatch  just  as  the  leaves  are  expanding,  then  is 
the  time  to  begin  spraying;  about  May  15th  is  usually  the  time 
in  this  State.  Where  they  are  numerous,  a  second  or  third  spray¬ 
ing  will  be  necessary.  The  emulsion  must  be  applied  liberally  and 
thoroughly;  it  will  not  injure  the  tree  in  the  least.  It  is  much 
more  difficult  to  fight  the  insect  later  in  the  summer,  when  the 
tree  is  in  full  foliage  and  many  of  the  nymphs  are  covered  with 
honey-dew.  Watch  for  their  appearance  on  the  unfolding  leaves 
in  the  spring  and  act  promptly.  Spray  two  or  three  times  in  a 
week  if  necessary  ;  make  every  effort  to  prevent  the  development 
of  a  second  brood. 

The  adults. — In  bulletin  44  we  suggested  that  a  thorough  wash¬ 
ing  of  the  trunks  and  larger  branches  of  the  trees  in  winter  with 
kerosene  emulsion  (at  least  five  per  cent,  kerosene),  or  a  strong 
soap  solution,  would  destroy  many  of  the  adults  in  hibernation 
in  the  crevices  of  the  bark.  It  is  reported  that  a  whale  oil  soap 
solution  has  been  thus  used  very  effectively  in  New  Jersey.  We 
believe  it  is  a  practical  method,  and  should  be  practiced  in  in¬ 
fested  orchards.- 

We  once  saw  hundreds  of  the  hibernating  adults  congregated 
on  the  smooth  trunks  of  a  large  block  of  young  standard  pear 
trees.  There  were  twenty-five  or  more  on  each  tree,  and  all  of 
them  on  the  same  sides  of  the  trees.  It  was  a  short  job  with  a 
rag  or  mitten  to  grasp  the  tree  at  the  base,  draw  the  hand  up  the 
trunk,  and  thus  crush  the  psyllas. 

Is  it  practicable  to  fight  the  adults  in  summer?  They  are  then 

cold  water,  preferably  with  rain  water.  Or  the  whole  mass  may  be  allowed 
to  cool  when  it  has  a  semi-solid  form,  not  unlike  loppered  milk.  This  stock 
if  covered  and  placed  in  a  cool  dark  place  will  keep  for  a  long  time.  In 
making  a  dilution  from  this  cold  stock  emulsion,  it  is  necessary  to  measure 
out  the  amount  of  the  emulsion  required  and  first  dissolve  it  in  three  or  four 
parts  of  boiling  water ;  if  cold  water  be  used  a  large  quantity  of  a  white 
flocculent  mass  rises  to  the  surface  and  does  not  dissolve.  After  the  stock 
emulsion  is  dissolved,  cold  water  may  be  added  in  the  required  quantities. 
If  all  the  utensils  are  clean,  and  the  directions  followed  closely,  no  free  oil 
will  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  dilution. 


8o 


Bulletin  108. 


often  very  numerous  but  are  very  shy  and  active,  and  fly  from  the 
tree  the  moment  the  spray  strikes  it.  It  would  thus  seem  that 
“  spraying  has  practically  no  value  against  the  adults  during  • 
their  active  summer  existence”  (Mr.  Marlatt).  However,  sev¬ 
eral  of  our  New  York  pear  growers  have  demonstrated  the  prac¬ 
ticability  of  fighting  the  adult  insect.  In  1894,  the  presence  of 
the  pest  in  destructive  numbers  was  not  suspected  in  one  Niagara 
county  orchard  until  the  leaves  began  to  drop  off  in  July.  The 
kerosene  emulsion  spray  was  at  once  directed  against  the  enemy 
•  with  the  result  that  it  at  once  brought  down  millions  of  the  adults, 
their  dead  bodies  being  thickly  strewn  about  the  spraying  appar¬ 
atus.  Although  the  insect  had  gotten  such  a  start  in  the 
orchard,  it  was  so  effectively  checked  with  the  emulsion  that  but 
few  psyllas  were  to  be  found  in  1895.  Ml  Geo.  T.  Powell,  who 
has  had  more  practical  experience  with  this  insect  than  any 
other  fruit  grower  in  the  state,  also  sends  us  the  following  brief, 
yet  graphic,  account  of  his  fight  with  the  insect  in  1894  •• 

“  May  10th.  Eggs  began  to  hatch  and  we  sprayed  with  kero¬ 
sene  emulsion,  diluted  1  to  20. 

May  15th.  The  nymphs  began  to  get  out  in  full  force,  when 
we  began  spraying  with  great  thoroughness.  When  the  wind 
blows  hard,  the  spraying  is  not  done  so  effectively,  especially  in 
the  tops  of  quite  tall  trees. 

May  16th.  Sprayed  a  second  orchard.  The  day  is  clear  and 
still.  The  work  is  very  much  more  effective,  killing  the  young 
psyllas  quickly  and  in  all  parts  of  the  tree. 

May  17th.  Sprayed  the  first  orchard  again.  Many  insects 
alive,  the  emulsion  not  having  hit  them  thoroughly  on  account 
of  high  winds.  Unless  the  insect  is  destroyed,  the  fruit  will  be 
worthless. 

June  5th.  After  several  rainy  days,  sprayed  pear  trees  again 
and  for  the  last  time  as  the  psylla  seems  to  be  pretty  well 
knocked  out  by  this  time  ;  only  a  few  nymphs  are  feeding,  but 
quite  a  number  of  adults  about  the  tree. 

June  1  ith.  Finding  a  few  nymphs  still  coming  out  and  work¬ 
ing,  we  spray  again  and  at  the  same  time  bring  down  millions  of 
the  adults  that  escaped  former  sprayings.  The  day  is  very  still 
and  warm.  The  greatest  possible  force  is  given  the  spray,  which 
goes  over  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees.  The  stones  on  the  ground 
and  the  platform  of  the  machine  are  covered  with  dead  adults. 

A  sheet  is  placed  under  a  small  tree,  and  after  spraying  but  ten 
seconds,  150  adults  fell  upon  the  sheet  and  in  five  minutes  90  per 
cent,  of  them  were  dead. 

After  discovering  the  extent  to  which  the  adults  were  being  de- 


The  Pear  Psyeea. 


8i 


stroyed,  the  entire  orchards  were  gone  over,  extra  force  being 
given  to  the  spray  to  bring  down  as  many  adults  as  possible, 
thereby  lessening  largely  the  number  to  multiply  next  year. 

We  used  a  hand-pump  on  the  Phillip’s  sprayer  and  stopped  at 
each  tree,  spraying  very  thoroughly  before  leaving  it.  There  is 
no  power  machine  that  will  do  this  work  thoroughly  enough  as 
yet  ;  for  pressure  on  the  pump  cannot  be  kept  on  strong  enough 
or  loug  enough  to  do  the  work  effectually. 

Results. — Notwithstanding  a  very  long  and  severe  drouth,  we 
brought  through  a  very  good  crop  of  pears  of  excellent  quality, 
the  first  good  crop  in  four  years.  The  trees  made  growth  and 
have  quite  rallied  from  an  almost  hopeless  condition  of  decline. 

June  18th,  1890.  I  very  thoroughly  annihilated  the  psy  11a  last 
year.  My  pear  orchard  is  improving  remarkably.  Sprayed  only 
once  this  season,  they  were  so  few.” 


Disheartened  pear  growers  cannot  fail  to  find  much  encourage¬ 
ment  in  the  above  account  of  how  the  ravages  of  this  pear 
psy  11a  were  checked  in  one  of  the  worst  afflicted  orchards  in  our 
State. 


82 


Bulletin  108. 


II.  THE  NEW  YORK  PLUM  SCALE. 


Lecanium  jugla?idisf  Bouche. 


This  insect  (Fig.  46),  which  suddenly  appeared  in  overwhelm¬ 
ing  numbers  in  many  of  the  largest  plum  orchards  in  western 

New  York  in  1894, 
was  discussed  in 
detail  in  our  bulle¬ 
tin  No.  83,  Decem¬ 
ber  1894.  The  bul¬ 
letin  is  not  yet  out 
of  print  and  can  be 
obtained  by  ad¬ 
dressing  the  Direc¬ 
tor  of  the  Experi¬ 
ment  Station.  Sev- 
eral  new  and 
important  facts 
have  been  learned 
about  the  insect 
since  the  bulletin 
was  published,  and 
these  are  included 
in  the  following 
notes  which  aim  to 
give  fruit-growers 
the  latest  news 
about  this  serious 
pest. 

Extent  of  its  dam¬ 
age  in  1894.. — The 
serious  picture  we 
drew  in  bulletin  83 
of  the  ravages  of 
the  insect  did  not  tell  half  the  truth.  Before  the  winter  was  far 
advanced,  it  was  found  that  the  strain  on  many  trees  from  so 
many  millions  of  little  pumps  sucking  out  their  vital  fluid — the 


46  . — Plum  branches  badly  infested  with  the  full- 
grown  scales ,  natural  size. 


The  New  York  Prum  Scare. 


33 


sap — had  been  too  great.  In  one  orchard  three  hundred  of  the 
oldest  bearing  trees  had  succumbed  in  January,  and  three  hun¬ 
dred  more  died  before  spring. 

Effect  of  the  winter  of  1894.-  95  on  the  scales. — When  winter  set 
in,  each  one  of  50,000  of  the  best  plum  trees  in  western  New  York 
harbored  millions  of  the  little  scales,  thus  threatening  the  entire 
destruction  of  thousands  of  these  trees  in  1895.  The  situation 
was  exceedingly  serious.  However,  in  January  it  was  reported 
at  the  meeting  of  the  Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society 
that  “  a  large  percentage  of  the  insects  were  being  killed  by  the 
winter.”  We  at  once  made  a  careful  examination  of  many  infest¬ 
ed  branches  sent  in  by  correspondents  in  different  localities,  and 
found  that  the  report  was  well  founded  ;  the  good  news  was  for¬ 
tunately  true.  From  50  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  scales  were  then 
dead,  and  evidently  more  succumbed  later  for  we  believe  that  in 
most  orchards  less  than  25  per  cent,  of  those  that  went  into  hiber¬ 
nation  in  the  fall  were  alive  in  April,  1895.  Apparently  those 
most  exposed  died  first,  indicating  that  weather  conditions  of 
some  sort  may  have  caused  their  death.  But  whether  it  was  due 
solely  to  low  temperature,  or  to  the  sharp,  dry,  chilling  winds  that 
prevailed,  we  cannot  say. 

Extent  of  damage  in  1895. — So  far  as  we  have  learned,  all  those 
who  suffered  so  severely  from  the  insect  in  1894,  are  unanimous 
in  their  opinion  that  but  very  little  damage  has  been  done  by  it 
in  their  orchards  this  year  ;  and  it  has  not  been  numerous  enough 
to  attract  particular  attention  except  on  a  few  trees.  This  general 
exemption  from  injury  this  year  was  due  to  three  principal  causes. 
First,  a  majority  of  the  scales  died  from  some  cause  during  the 
winter,  thus  greatly  checking  the  future  development  of  the  in¬ 
sect.  Second,  most  of  those  having  infested  trees  carried  on  a 
vigorous  warfare  against  the  pest  with  the  kerosene  emulsion,  both 
in  the  fall  and  early  spring.  Third,  thousands  of  the  scales  were 
killed  by  minute  parasites  in  the  spring,  and  the  lady-bug  beetles 
which  feed  upon  the  scales  were  unusually  numerous  and  active 
during  the  summer. 

However,  a  few  orchards  suffered  considerably  from  the  insect  this 
year  ;  we  learned  of  one  apple  orchard  in  Niagara  county  that  was 
quite  badly  injured.  On  the  whole,  the  insect  did  very  little  dam¬ 
age  in  1895  compared  with  the  destruction  wrought  in  1894. 


84 


Bulletin  108. 


The  future  outlook. — What  little  information  we  have  indicates 
that  the  insect  is  going  into  hibernation  in  considerable  numbers 
on  some  trees,  but  the  outlook  for  1896  is  encouraging.  Never¬ 
theless,  it  will  not  do  to  be  too  sanguine.  Every  tree  known  to 
harbor  the  pest  should  be  carefully  examined  this  fall,  during  the 
winter,  and  especially  early  in  the  spring. 

Previous  to  last  year,  New  York  orchards  had  never  suffered 
from  the  attacks  of  this  or  any  other  Eecanium  scale,  and  they 
may  not  be  threatened  so  seriously  again  for  many  years  to  come. 
But  we  can  never  tell  when  to  expect  most  of  our  insect  foes  to 
appear  in  alarming  numbers,  so  that  our  fruit  growers  must  be 
continually  on  the  alert  and  watch  this  plum  pest  closely  every 
year. 

Its  najne. — Experts  are  not  yet  agreed  upon  the  name  this 
Eecanium  should  bear.  It  has  lately  been  decided  by  Mr.  New- 
stead,  of  England,  that  it  is  identical  with  the  Europen  insect — 
Lecanium  prunastri .  Messrs.  Cockerell  and  Maskell  conclude 
that  it  is  probably  identical  with  Lecanium  juglandis  which 
Bouche  found  on  black  walnut  in  Germany  over  fifty  years  ago.* 

Its  history  and  distribution. — The  fact  that  isolated  specimens 
of  this  insect  can  be  found  on  almost  any  large  plum  tree  in  cer¬ 
tain  portions  of  the  State,  indicates  that  it  has  been  with  us  for 
many  years.  The  few  years  preceding  1894,  happened  to  offer 
the  conditions  most  favorable  for  its  multiplication  in  exces¬ 
sive  numbers  in  western  New  York  ;  and  it  then  forced  itself 
upon  our  attention  by  its  destructive  work. 

Mr.  L.  O.  Howard,  U.  S.  Entomologist,  reports  (Yearbook  of 
U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.  for  1894,  p.  272)  that  there  are  two 
other  distinct  kinds  of  Lecaniums  affecting  plum  trees  in  the 
United  States.  One  of  these  passes  the  winter  in  the  same  stage 
as  does  our  New  York  species,  while  the  other  hibernates  as  a 
nearly  full-grown,  rounded  female.  Our  New  York  species  has 
recently  appeared  in  destructive  numbers  in  Canada.  It  is  also 
more  generally  distributed  over  our  State  than  was  suspected 

*Mr.  Masked  writes  us  on  October  6,  1895:  “I  have  examined  your 
insects,  and  agree  with  Mr.  Cockerell  that  on  the  whole  they  are  nearest  to 
Lecanium  juglandis.  I  don’t  quite  see  how  your  insect  can  be  L.  prunastri 
which  has  very  marked  epidermal  puncta.  I  don’t  think  you  will  go  far 
wrong  in  calling  it  L.  juglandis." 


The  New  York  Peum  Scaee. 


when  we  wrote  bulletin  83.  We  have  received  it  from  Aquetuck, 
Hector,  Scoharie  (on  Prunus  simoni ),  Eastwood  and  Penn  Yan, 
N.  Y. 

Its  food- plants. — The  insect  still  remains  par  excellence  a  plum 
pest,  yet  several  quince  and  apple  trees  have  been  seriously  in¬ 
jured  by  it.  A  possible  source  of  infestation  for  some  of  the 
orchards  near  Geneva  was  found  to  be  an  ash  grove  which  was 
very  badly  injured  in  1894  by  a  Lecanium  which  is  apparently 
the  same  as  the  one  working  on  the  plum  trees.  The  grove  was 
also  badly  inj  ured  this  year,  the  leaves  all  dropping  off  during 
the  summer. 

Probably  the  Eecaniums  found  in  such  large  numbers  on  maple 
and  other  forest  trees  in  different  parts  of  the  State  are  distinct 
from  the  plum  Eecanium. 

Its  natural  enemies . — The  small,  black,  elevated,  smooth,  para¬ 
sitized  scales  described  in  bul¬ 


letin  83,  p.  693,  werejvery  nu¬ 
merous  last  spring,  and  we  bred 
many  of  the  minute  four- wing¬ 
ed  flies.  Mr.  L.  O.  Howard  has 
determined  them  as  Coccopha- 
gus  lecanii  Fitch,  a  Chalcid 
which  is  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  and  attacks  sev¬ 
eral  different  kinds  of  Lecani- 
ums.  This  little  foe  proved  a 
valuable  ally  of  the  fruit¬ 
grower  last  spring,  as  we 
found  a  considerable  percent¬ 
age  of  the  scales  parasitized. 

From  several  different 
sources  we  have  learned  that 
the  twice-stabbed  lady-bug 
beetle  was  very  numerous  in 
the  infested  plum  trees  this 
year.  Several  groups  of  the 
spring  skins  (Fig.  47)  shed 
by  their  larvae  when  they  pupate,  have  been  sent  in  by  plum 
growers.  Protect  these  little  lady-bugs,  as  they  are  doing  valiant 
service  in  the  extermination  of  this  pest. 


47. — Spiny  larval  skins  of  lady-bug 
beetles ,  natural  size. 


86 


Bueeetin  108. 


Results  of  spraying. — All  who  sprayed  with  the  kerosene  emul¬ 
sion  (diluted  with  4  parts  of  water)  according  to  the  directions 
given  in  bulletin  83,  report  general  success.  There  is  no  longer 
any  question  about  its  killing  the  scales  hit  by  it. 

During  the  summer  we  saw  infested  trees  that  had  been  sprayed 
with  different  substances  to  kill  the  young  scales  then  on  the 
leaves.  Some  of  the  scales  had  been  killed,  but  as  it  was  evident 
that  a  great  majority,  over  75  per  cent.,  were  uninjured,  the  ap¬ 
plications  were  far  from  a  success.  The  liquids  had  also  injured 
the  bloom  on  what  little  fruit  there  was.  What  results  we  saw 
fully  confirmed  our  opinion,  expressed  in  bulletin  83,  that  the 
insect  cannot  be  effectually  and  practicably  checked  by  sprays 
while  it  is  on  the  leaves  during  the  summer  and  early  fall. 

Spray  infested  trees  once  after  the  leaves  fall  in  autumn,  and  at 
least  twice  in  the  spring  before  the  buds  open.  Use  kerosene 
emulsion  diluted  four  times,  and  the  application  cannot  be  done 
too  thoroughly  ;  each  little  scale  must  be  hit 

Mark  Vernon  Seingerland. 


Bulletin  109.  January,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT. 

GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY 

OF  THE 

CHAUTAUQUA  GRAPE  BELT. 


By  R.  S.  TARR. 


* 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY. 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 


Hon.  A.  D.  White, 
Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  I  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ------  Director. 

E.  L.  Williams,  ------  Treasurer. 

H.  W.  Smith,  ------  clerk. 


ASSISTANTS 


M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  The  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  i,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir:  One  of  the  most  obvious  circumstances  connected  with  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  many  fruits  is  the  fact  that  the  most  successful  plantations  of  them 
are  confined  within  somewhat  narrow  areas  or  in  well  marked  geographic 
regions.  This  circumstance  is  emphatic  in  the  grape  belt  of  Chautauqua 
County.  It  becomes  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  determine  the  reasons 
for  the  existence  of  these  fruit  belts,  and  to  ascertain  how  far  their  limits 
may  probably  be  extended  with  profit.  A  study  of  the  surface  geology  and 
topography  of  any  of  these  belts  may  be  expected  to  afforded  most  interest¬ 
ing  and  valuable  facts  for  the  pomologist,  for  this  type  of  investigation  is  yet 
practically  untouched  by  scientific  inquiry.  In  Chautauqua  County  there  is 
a  particular  reason  for  such  an  inquiry  because  of  the  fact  that  the  entire 
Erie  slope  is  not  equally  adapted  to  the  grape,  although  vineyards  have  been 
almost  promiscuously  planted  upon  it.  It  is  necessary  that  the  true  grape 
belt  be  delimited  and  charted.  In  seeking  to  take  up  this  investigation,  we 
have  been  fortunate  to  secure  the  services  of  R.  S.  Tarr,  Professor  of  Geology 
in  Cornell  University.  It  is  a  happy  circumstance  that  Chautauqua  County, 
which  originated  and  matured  the  movement  for  Experiment  Station  exten¬ 
sion  work,  should  now  be  the  scene  of  the  first  specific  attempt  in  this 
country,  on  the  part  of  an  Experiment  Station,  to  analyze  the  physical  geog¬ 
raphy  of  a  fruit  belt.  L.  H.  Bailey. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction .  . 

Topography  . . 

The  Bed  Rock . 

The  Soils . 

General  Description  of  the  Soils . 

The  Hillside  Soils . 

The  Gravel  Ridges . . . . . 

The  Rake  Clay  Soils . 

Shale  Gravel . .  . 

The  Relative  Value  of  the  Soils . 

The  Modern  Beaches .  . 

The  Ancient  Beaches . 

The  Gravel  Ridges .  . 

Variations  in  the  Gravel  Ridges  . . 

Irregularities  and  Revel  of  Gravel  Ridges  .  ... 

Interpretation . { . 

Resume  of  the  Geological  History. .  . 

Climatic  Conditions  . 

Most  Favorable  Places  for  the  Location  of  Vineyards 
Influence  of  the  Gravel  Ridges . 


Page. 

90-91 

92 

93 
93 
93 
96 

98 

101 

102 

102 

103 
109 
109 
hi 

113 

113 

115 

120 

121 

122 


fM  i 


‘ 


f 


48. —  Wave-cut  cliff  and  beach  of  Lake  Erie ,  north  of  Ripley 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHAUTAU¬ 
QUA  GRAPE  BELT. 

INTRODUCTION. 

This  study  was  made  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
the  natural  conditions  which  favor  fruit  growing  in  the  grape  belt 
of  the  Brie  shore  of  New  York.  It  became  immediately  evident 
that  these  conditions  had  to  do  both  with  the  soil  and  the  climate. 
Concerning  the  latter  little  detailed  information  of  value  could 
be  obtained  ;  for  in  order  to  gain  this  information,  meteorologi¬ 
cal  observations  must  be  carried  on  for  a  series  of  years  at  sta¬ 
tions  located  in  different  places.  In  order  to  find  out  how  the 
soil  varies,  a  rather  careful  study  of  characteristics  and  distribu¬ 
tion  was  made  ;  and  the  satisfactory  study  of  these,  involved  the 
question  of  origin.  Since  the  origin  is  a  question  of  some  interest, 
it  will  be  included  in  this  paper. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  two  factors  of  soil  and  cli¬ 
mate  have  conspired  to  make  the  grape  belt  a  district  admirably 
adapted  to  fruit  raising.  While  each  is  of  importance,  it  is  evi¬ 
dent  that  the  climatic  peculiarities  are  of  more  importance  than 
the  soil.  Both  the  characteristics  of  climate  and  soil  are  due  to  the 
topographic  peculiarities  and  the  geological  history  of  the  region 
included  within  the  grape  belt  and  in  its  immediate  neighborhood. 

The  time  occupied  in  the  field  study  has  amounted  to  only 
about  three  weeks, — two  in  June,  one  in  September  and  two  days 
in  November  ;  and  therefore  a  great  amount  of  detail  cannot  be 
expected.  Although  a  little  work  was  done  east  of  Silver  Creek, 
the  study  was  practically  limited  to  the  region  between  this  town 
and  the  state  line.  During  the  study,  I  have  received  many  cour¬ 
tesies  from  the  residents  of  the  grape  belt,  and  I  am  particularly 
indebted  to  Mr.  J.  W.  Spencer,  of  Westfield.  In  September  I 
was  aided  by  Mr.  T.  B-  Watson,  of  Cornell  University.  In  run¬ 
ning  the  three  lines  of  levels,  Mr.  M.  D.  Tennant,  of  Westfield, 
did  the  leveling  and  the  writer  acted  as  rodman. 


92 


Bulletin  109. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 


The  situation  of  the  grape  belt  is  peculiar.  From  Lake  On¬ 
tario  southward,  toward  Niagara  Falls  or  Lockport,  there  is  a 
nearly  level  plain  extending  to  the  base  of  the  Niagara  escarp¬ 


ment,  known  locally  as  “  the  mountain  ”  (Fig.  49),  which  rises 
quite  abruptly  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet.  This 
escarpment  is  well  seen  at  Lewiston,  where  the  basal  plain 
stretches  away  toward  the  lake,  with  scarcely  any  diversity  to 
break  the  monotony.  All  of  this  plain  is  less  than  500  feet  in 
elevation  above  the  sea,  and  it  borders  the  entire  southern  shore 
of  Ontario. 

South  of  the  Niagara  escarpment,  toward  Batavia  or  Buffalo, 
there  is  another  plain,  which  beyond  Buffalo  narrows  down  to  a 
width  of  only  one  or  two  miles  as  the  state  line  is  approached.  It 
is  nowhere  below  500  feet,  nor  above  800  feet  in  elevation.  This 
narrow  strip  which  borders  the  Erie  shore  is  the  true  grape  belt. 
Everywhere  the  southern  margin  of  this  plain  is  backed  by  an  es- 


50. — Location  of  the  grape  belt. 


carpment  or  ridge  (Fig.  50),  which  quickly  rises  to  a  height  of 
500  or  600  feet  above  the  plain,  and  in  some  places  is  over  1,000 
feet  above  the  lake.  Therefore,  the  grape  belt  (in  New  York) 
is  a  narrow  plain  extending  north-eastward  from  the  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  state  line,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  lake,  on  the 
south  by  a  high  range  of  hills.  East  of  Silver  Creek  the  plain 
widens,  and  the  bounding  escarpment  loses  in  elevation.  This  « 
narrow  plain  is  only  a  small  fragment  of  the  feal  plain  ;  for  the 


Chautauqua  Graph  Belt. 


93 


waters  of  Bake  Brie  cover  the  greater  part  of  it.  As  is  shown  in 
the  profile  (Fig.  50),  the  plain  descends  beneath  the  lake  waters 
and  ascends  on  the  Canadian  side.  Not  merely  is  a  part  of  the 
plain  now  submerged,  but  at  a  recent  geological  period  more  of  it, 
and  that  part  now  occupied  by  the  most  flourishing  vineyards,  was 
covered  by  the  lake  waters.  Bake  Brie  now  plays  an  important 
part  in  modifying  the  climate  of  the  grape  belt ;  it  formerly  did 
important  service  in  modifying  the  soils. 

THB  BBD  ROCK. 

As  revealed  along  the  lake  shore,  and  in  the  remarkable  gorges 
which  cut  the  escarpment  and  the  plain,  the  bed  rock  is  entirely 
upper  Devonian  shales  and  sandstones  above  the  horizon  of  the 
Hamilton,  which  does  not  extend  farther  west  than  Bvans.  Both 
plain  and  escarpment  are  made  of  these  ;  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  latter  owes  its  elevation  to  the  protective  effect  of  some  harder 
layers  of  upper  Devonian  rock  now  removed. 

On  the  northern  face  of  the  escarpment  the  soil  is  prevailingly 
thin,  and  the  plough  frequently  reaches  the  bed  rock  ;  but  on  the 
plain,  the  bed  rock  is  rarely  seen  at  the  surface,  excepitng  in  the 
stream  beds  and  in  the  shale  ridges,  which  are  found  mainly  east 
of  Dunkirk.  Still  the  bed  rock  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
soils  ;  for  fragments  of  shale  are  commonly  present  in  all  the  soils 
of  the  district. 

THB  SOIBS. 

General  description  of  the  soils. — If  we  should  make  several 
north  and  south  sections  across  the  grape  belt,  from  the  middle  of 
the  escarpment  to  the  lake  shore,  they  would  be  found  to  vary  in 
details  according  to  the  location  of  the  line,  but  to  be  quite  the  same 
in  general  features.  The  average  condition  would  be  as  follows 


51. — Section  of  the  grape  belt. 

(Fig.  51).  Commencing  on  the  hillside  with  a  thin  soil  of  clayey 
nature,  and  with  an  abundance  of  pebbles,  (Fig.  53)  and  perhaps 


— Map  of  the  region  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Grape  Beit.  Showing  the  approximate  location  of  the  three  beaches  and  the 

moraines  (M). 


Chautauqua  Grape  Beet. 


95 


boulders,  at  the  base  of  the  hill,  when  at  the  elevation  of  about 
250  feet  above  the  lake,  we  come  to  a  gravelly  soil  in  which  the 
pebbles  are  well  rounded  (Fig.  57),  as  if  by  water  action.  North  of 
this  there  is  a  steep  slope  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  at  the  base  of 
which  the  soil  becomes  clayey ;  and  this  continues,  usually  for 
several  hundred  feet,  or  possibly  as  many  yards,  when  gravelly  con¬ 
ditions  are  again  encountered,  somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
main  Buffalo  and  Erie  turnpike.  One  or  two  gravel  terraces  are 
found  here  ;  and,  at  the  base  of  the  northernmost  of  these, 
clay  again  appears.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  first  gravel  ridge, 
there  are  springs  at  the  junction  of  the  gravel  and  clay,  so  that, 
where  not  artificially  drained,  this  place  is  continuously  indicated 
by  swampy  conditions.  From  the  top  of  the  upper  (southern¬ 
most)  gravel  ridge  to  the  spring  line  at  the  base  of  the  lowest, 
the  descent  is  about  90  feet,  and  the  distance  anywhere  between 
two  or  three  hundred  yards  and  a  mile,  or  even  more,  though 
usually  not  far  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

From  this  point  lakeward,  a  distance  of  one  or  two,  and  in 
some  places  even  three  miles,  the  plain  is  somewhat  irregular, 
with  a  general  descent  toward  the  lake,  which  is  some  150  to  160 
feet  below  the  gravel  ridges.  The  soil  is  usually  a  clay,  though  it  is 
often  of  a  sandy  nature.  The  immediate  shore  line  is  commonly 
a  bluff,  either  of  shale  or  of  clay,  (Figs.  48,  59  and  61)  though 
at  times  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  beach,  without  any  well  developed 
bluff  (Fig.  58). 

As  has  been  said,  this  will  hold  in  general  for  any  north  and 
south  line,  whether  at  the  state  line,  Fredonia,  Silver  Creek,  or 
any  intermediate  point.  If,  however,  we  make  our  section  nearly 
parallel  to  the  lake  shore,  remaining  at  the  same  elevation  above 
its  surface,  we  find  a  remarkable  uniformity  of  conditions.  Thus 
we  may  pass  from  Erie,  Pa.  (and  indeed  from  far  to  the  west  of 
this),  to  Hamburg,  N.  Y. ,  without  leaving  a  belt  of  gravel,  ex¬ 
cepting  where  the  road  crosses  a  stream  ;  or,  if  on  the  hillsides, 
one  may  pass  over  the  same  distance  upon  a  boulder-bearing  clay; 
or,  if  near  the  lake,  upon  a  fine  clay  soil,  usually  free  from  bould¬ 
ers.  These  differences  are  constant,  and  they  are  due  to  definite 
causes.  Since  the  result  is  of  importance  to  the  fruit  grower,  the 
cause  must  at  least  be  of  interest.  Before  considering  the  cause, 
we  will  examine  the  conditions  in  a  little  more  detail. 


96 


Bulletin  109. 


The  hillside  soils. — Above  the  upper  gravel  (see  map,  fig.  52), 
which  usually  lies  but  a  short  distance  south  of  the  main  road, 
the  ground  generally  commences  to  rise  more  rapidly,  and  the 
escarpment  is  soon  reached.  On  this  hillside  there  is  considera¬ 
ble  grape  raising,  but  the  soil  is  altogether  different  from  that  in 
the  region  to  the  lakeward,  which  is  the  main  grape  belt.  The 
base  of  this  soil  is  a  clay  of  very  fine  texture ;  but  there  are  some 
local  variations  from  this.  In  some  cases  the  soil  is  a  loam,  and 
in  places  it  is  even  sandy,  while  on  the  other  extreme  it  is  often  a 
dense  hardpan  ;  but  nearly  everywhere  the  bulk  of  the  soil  is 
clay,  whether  it  is  hard  and  compacted  into  hardpan,  or  is  a  loose 


53. — Section  in  the  boulder  clay  on  Mayville  and  Westfield  road . 

and  relatively  friable  loam.  When  fresh,  the  color  is  blue;  but 
since  the  soil  is  generally  somewhat  disintegrated,  the  color  ordi¬ 
narily  seen  is  a  yellow,  which  is  due  to  iron  rust  leached  from  the 
soil  fragments. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  clay  is  the  presence  of  pebbles. 
These  are  very  numerous,  and  at  times  they  are  of  considerable 
size.  It  is  important  to  note  the  form  of  these.  They  are  angu¬ 
lar,  and  if  rounded  at  all,  this  is  usually  on  only  one  or  two  of 
the  sides,  so  that  angular  corners  are  almost  invariably  to  be  found. 


Chautauqua  Grape  Bert. 


97 


Moreover,  the  sides  of  these  often  bear  numerous  grooves  and 
scratches.  While  many  of  the  pebbles  are  fragments  of  shale 
rock,  like  that  which  forms  the  bed  rock  of  the  region,  a  careful 
examination  shows  that  there  are  many  which  are  foreign  to  this 
part  of  New  York.  Thus  granites,  sandstones  and  limestones  are 
found  in  a  region  which  from  the  bed  rock  yields  only  shales  and 
sandy  shales.  If  we  could  examine  the  soil  particles  with  a 
microscope,  we  should  find  them  to  be  composed  of  minute  rock 
particles,  fresh  and  unchanged,  as  if  worn  or  ground  from  the 
rock  by  some  strong  force.  The  entire  mass  is  put  together  with¬ 
out  arrangement,  and  there  are  no  distinct  layers  such  as  those 
found  in  the  lower  gravel  soils.  We  say  it  is  unstratified,  though 
sometimes  (as  in  figure  53)  there  is  a  partial  stratification,  never 
very  distinct. 

This  soil  varies  greatly  in  thickness,  being  usually  several  feet 
deep  ;  but  while  sometimes,  particularly  in  the  stream  valleys,  it 
attains  a  depth  of  several  hundred  feet,  in  other  places  on  the 
hillsides  it  forms  a  very  thin  veneer  over  the  shale  rock.  Near 
the  crest  of  th,e  escarpment,  there  is  another  belt  of  soil  of  mo¬ 
rainic  origin  ;  but  as  this  is  not  in  the  true  grape  belt,  it  need  not 
be  considered  here. 

This  clay  soil  is  the  same  as  that  which  covers  the  greater  part 
of  the  area  of  New  York  and  New  England,  and  of  Canada  to 
the  north  of  these  districts.  Its  characteristics  and  origin  are 
well  understood  by  geologists,  to  whom  it  is  known  as  till  or 
boulder  clay.  In  the  first  half  of  this  century  its  origin  was  in 
dispute ;  but  we  now  know  that  it  is  a  deposit  from  a  great  con¬ 
tinental  glacier  which  occupied  northeastern  North  America,  and 
extended  outward  in  all  directions  from  a  center  near  Hudson 
Bay  or  Labrador,  behaving  like  the  present  ice  sheet  of  Green¬ 
land,  or  the  Antarctic.  Slowly  moving  across  New  York  state, 
toward  the  south,  with  a  depth  certainly  as  great  as  a  mile  (for  it 
covered  the  highest  mountains  of  the  east),  it  ground  down  the 
rocks,  reducing  them  to  a  fine  clay,  which  is  often  called  rock 
flour,  and  caused  a  mingling  of  pebbles  from  various  sources. 
Thus  the  granite  from  the  Canadian  highlands  is  stranded  on  the 
hillsides  of  Chautauqua  county  and  is  there  mingled  with  the 
shale.  The  grooved  and  scratched  pebbles  show  that  this  process 
of  grinding  was  in  operation. 


98 


Bulletin  109. 


2 

o 

u 

H 

X 


Much  of  this  material  was  dragged  beneath  the 
ice ;  and  owing  to  variations  in  the  topography  of 
the  land,  in  currents  or  in  supply,  in  some  places 
it  accumulated  to  a  depth  of  several  hundred  feet, 
while  in  other  places  it  was  not  so  extensively 
deposited,  just  as  in  some  places  a  river  scours  its 
channel  clear,  while  elsewhere  it  is  building  a 
bar.  Finally  the  ice  disappeared  from  these  hill¬ 
sides  and  all  of  the  material  that  was  in  or  under 
it  was  left  to  form  the  present  hillside  soils. 

The  hillside  soils  are  somewhat  difficult  to 
work,  partly  because  of  the  roughness  of  the 
surface,  partly  because  of  the  irregularities  of  the 
texture  and  composition,  which,  even  in  the  same 
field,  may  very  differently  affect  capillarity  and 
drainage.  Moreover,  it  is  often  a  dense  hardpan 
which  is  difficult  to  till.  Still  it  is  a  strong, 
sturdy  soil,  which,  when  properly  cultivated, 
furnishes  good  crops.  However,  it  is  not  so  well 
adapted  to  grapes  as  the  more  sandy  soils  of  the 
valley. 

The  gravel  ridges. — Throughout  the  entire 
grape  belt  (Fig.  54),  there  are  three  distinct  grav¬ 
el  areas,  extending  approximately  parallel  to  the 
Erie  shore.  On  one  of  the  two  northernmost  of 
these  the  main  road  to  Buffalo  is  generally  located, 
while  the  third  is  south  of  this,  at  distances  gen¬ 
erally  varying  from  one  or  two  hundred  yards  to 
more  than  a  half  mile.  Between  these  distinct 
ridges  there  are  sometimes  one  or  two  less  dis¬ 
tinct  gravel  beds  ;  but  most  of  the  space  between 
them  is  occupied  by  a  clayey  soil.  In  some  places, 
particularly  near  the  larger  streams,  the  entire 
belt  is  gravelly. 

The  surface  of  the  gravel  ridges  is  typical. 

Each  one  is  remarkably  level-topped  (Fig.  55), 
and  the  roads  that  follow  them  often  extend  for  miles  almost  on 
a  dead  level.  They  are  distinct  terraces,  and  when  viewed  from 


Chautauqua  Grape  Belt. 


99 


55. — Road  on  the  crest  of  a  gravel  ridge  just  east  of  Fredonia. 

the  north  they  present  a  bold  face  which  rises  quite  abruptly  to  a 
height  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  (Fig.  56),  beyond  which  a 
nearly  level  plain  is  usually  encountered  (Figs-  54  and  55).  Near 
the  streams  the  terrace  is  broader  than  elsewhere  ;  and  in  some 
cases  it  is  a  true  ridge  with  a  nearly  level  top  but  with  a  slope 
both  to  the  north  and  the  south  (Fig.  65). 

The  soil  of  these  gravel  ridges  is  peculiar,  and  it  is  upon  them 
that  many  of  the  best  vineyards  are  located.  Wells  and  natural 
sections  show  that  the  gravel  soil  varies  in  depth  from  one  or  two 
feet  near  the  edge,  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet.  Beneath  the  gravel  is 
found  clay  or  shale.  The  gravel  soil  consists  of  pebbles  and 
sand  with  scarcely  any  clay,  excepting  that  which  has  come  from 


IOO 


Bulletin  109. 


the  disintegration  of  some  of  the  fragments.  After  plowing,  it 
does  not  form  clotted  bunches,  but  is  loose,  friable  and  porous. 
Water  readily  passes  through  it,  and  for  this  reason,  forms  of 
vegetation  whose  roots  do  not  extend  deep  into  the  soil  are  in 
danger  of  suffering  in  times  of  drought. 

When  examined  in  a  fresh  section,  it  is  found  that  the  gravel 
is  often  very  pebbly,  and  that  the  pebbles  are  sometimes  very 


large.  Compared  with  those  of  the  hillside,  the  pebbles  are  found 
to  be  well  rounded  and  smoothed  (Figs.  57  and  66),  as  if  by  water 
action.  There  are  few  if  any  angular  corners,  and  no  grooves  of 
scratches.  The  clay  element  is  practically  absent,  and  the  peb¬ 
bles  are  bound  together  by  sand  instead.  The  pebbles  and  sand 
are  in  layers,  or  are  stratified  (Fig.  57),  so  that  there  are  several 
important  differences  between  the  soils  of  the  two  zones. 

A  comparison  with  the  beaches  of  the  present  lake  shore  shows 
a  striking  resemblance,  not  only  in  texture  but  in  the  surface  out¬ 
line.  In  both  cases  there  are  many  rounded  pebbles  and  much 
sand  ;  and  in  both  cases,  also,  the  surface  form  is  that  of  a  flat- 
topped  terrace.  However,  in  the  beach  there  is  almost  no  clay, 
while  in  the  gravel  ridges  the  decay  of  some  of  the  pebbles  and 
sand  particles  has  furnished  some  clay  ;  and  also  the  action  of 
vegetation  and  cultivation  has  somewhat  modified  the  gravel 


Chautauqua  Graph  Bkut. 


ioi 


ridge  soil.  The  meaning  of  this  resemblance  will  soon  be  shown 
to  be  similarity  of  origin.  As  many  who  have  tilled  the  gravel 
soil  have  conjectured,  the  ridges  are  true  lake  beaches  now  strand¬ 
ed  on  dry  land. 

The  lake  clay  soils. — In  the  present  lake,  gravel  beaches  are  be¬ 
ing  formed  along  the  shore  line  ;  and  each  time  that  there  are 
strong  waves,  the  washing  action  of  the  water  moves  the  pebbles 
backward  and  forward,  rounding  them  by  grinding  off  tiny  parti¬ 
cles  of  clay.  The  force  of  the  waves  and  currents  is  capable  of 


57. — Section  through  the  upper  beach  at  Westfield ,  showing  stratification  of 

pebbles  and  sand. 


carrying  the  beach  sand  and  gravel  only  to  a  very  short  distance 
from  the  shore  line  ;  but  the  clay  that  is  worn  away  by  the  waves 
passes  in  suspension  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore 
line  before  settling  to  the  bottom.  During  windy  days  the  waters 
immediately  off  shore  are  clouded  with  sediment.  Fishermen 
know  that  at  a  distance  of  only  a  few  yards  from  the  shore  the 
lake  bottom  is  almost  everywhere  covered  with  clay  or  sandy  clay. 
The  soundings  made  by  the  United  States  Engineers,  who  have 
surveyed  the  bottom  of  Take  Erie,  show  that  a  muddy  bottom  is 
the  prevailing  feature. 

When  the  lake  waters  reached  to  the  height  of  the  gravel 
ridges,  the  region  below  this  was  naturally  a  place  for  the  deposit 
of  clay.  While  some  pebbles  may  have  been  drifted  away  by  the 
ice,  and  dropped  to  the  bottom  away  from  the  shore,  the  clay  was 


102 


Bulletin  109. 


«* 

in  most  places  free  from  large  fragments.  In  some  places,  par¬ 
ticularly  opposite  the  mouths  of  streams,  the  clay  might  be  re¬ 
placed  by  sand  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  coast.  An 
examination  of  the  soil  between  the  northermost  gravel  ridge  and 
the  lake  shore,  shows  that  these  features  exist. 

A  layer  of  clay,  varying  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  several 
feet,  is  spread  over  most  of  the  region  west  of  Silver  Creek  and 
north  of  the  gravel  ridges.  Oftentimes  it  rests  on  the  bed  rock, 
barely  covering  it  :  in  other  cases  it  is  found  above  the  true 
boulder  clay,  and  in  some  stream  cuts  one  may  often  see  a  bed  of 
dense  boulder  clay  upon  which  rests  a  foot  or  two  of  clay,  which 
is  often  quite  sandy.  In  such  places,  one  has  the  opportunity  of 
studying  the  differences  between  the  two  kinds  of  clay  soil,  one 
of  which  is  characteristic  of  the  hillsides.  The  lake  clays  are 
found  to  be  in  layers,  as  if  deposited  in  water,  and  the  clay  is 
usually  less  dense  than  the  boulder  clay,  while  pebbles  are  rela¬ 
tively  scarce. 

Shale  gravel . — Between  the  lake  shore  and  the  true  gravel 
ridges,  in  some  places  there  are  low  ridges  of  shale,  on  which  the 
soil  is  so  thin  that  deep  plowing  reaches  the  friable  shale  bed 
rock.  The  soil  is  then  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  fragments  of  shale 
and  clay,  forming  what  is  known  as  shale  gravel.  These  deposits 
are  not  very  extensive,  and  they  merely  represent  rock  hills 
which  have  not  been  deeply  covered  by  glacial  or  lake  deposits. 
They  are  less  common  west  of  Silver  Creek  than  they  are  east  of 
that  town. 

The  relative  value  of  the  soils. — Of  the  three  important  kinds  of 
soil  in  the  grape  belt,  the  gravel  is  distinctly  the  best  for  fruit 
raising,  and  the  hillside  soils  of  the  least  value.  That  the  fruit 
growers  have  generally  recognised  this,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  the  belt  of  gravel  there  is  a  much  greater  percentage  of  vine¬ 
yard  than  in  either  of  the  other  belts.  While  it  is  so  readily  per¬ 
meable  to  water  that  plants  whose  roots  do  not  extend  deep  into 
the  ground  may  suffer  from  droughts,  it  rests  upon  a  much  less 
permeable  rock  or  clay,  over  which  water  is  constantly  percolat¬ 
ing  ;  and  those  forms  of  vegetation  whose  roots  are  able  to  reach 
down  to  this  zone  are  not  endangered.  The  depth  of  this  per¬ 
manent  water  zone  is  variable,  but  it  is  usually  several  feet. 


Chautauqua  Graph  Belt. 


103 


The  width  of  this  gravel  belt  is  very  variable,  as  indeed  are  the 
details  of  its  composition.  Near  the  mouths  of  large  streams,  as 
at  Silver  Creek,  Fredonia,  Westfield  and  the  state  line,  the  zone 
broadens  so  that  a  sandy  soil  extends  from  the  base  of  the  true 
gravel  ridge  across  the  plain,  nearly,  if  not  quite  to  the  lake.  Be¬ 
tween  the  streams,  the  gravel  ridges  become  narrower  terraces, 
and  the  lake  clay  soil  commences  at  their  very  base.  Therefore  in 
different  parts  of  the  grape  belt,  the  area  in  which  the  soil  features 
are  especially  adapted  to  grape  raising  is  somewhat  variable  ;  but 


58. — Modern  beach  at  Barcelona,  showing  the  crest  in  the  backgroicnd. 

there  is  a  certain  uniformity,  and  the  importance  of  this  to  the 
question  of  origin  is  sufficient  to  call  for  a  more  detailed  statement 
of  the  features  of  the  gravel  ridges,  or,  as  we  may  now  call  them, 
the  ancient  beaches. 

THE  MODERN  BEACHES. 

Let  us  first  take  a  glimpse  at  the  present  shore  line  features  of 
Lake  Erie.  There  are  two  separate  kinds  of  shores,  the  rock  or 
clay  bluffs  (Fig.  48)  and  the  gravelly  or  sandy  beaches  (Fig.  61). 
Oftentimes  the  bluff  is  faced  by  a  beach  (Figs.  48  and  61).  Where 
the  larger  streams  enter  the  lake,  the  width  of  the  beach  is  in¬ 
creased,  and  the  waves  are  not  cutting  at  the  base  of  the  shale 
bluffs.  The  cliffs  need  not  delay  us,  for  it  is  the  beaches  with  which 
we  have  to  do  in  particular.  The  beaches  consist  of  sand  and 


104 


Bulletin  109 


gravel  thrown  by  the  storm  waves  to  a  height  of  several  feet 
above  the  reach  of  the  ordinary  waves.  In  time  of  strong  waves 
the  water  dashes  over  the  top  of  the  beach,  moving  the  pebbles 
too  and  fro,  although  they  are  situated  fully  ten  feet  above  the 


59. — Crest  of  modern  beach  at  Barcelona  with  a  clay  bluff  in  the  background. 


Chautauqua.  Graph  Bklt. 


105 


present  lake  surface  (measured  at  Barcelona)  (Fig.  58).  This  is 
the  crest  of  a  terrace  whose  width  varies,  sometimes  being  a  nar¬ 
row  strip  at  the  base  of  a  bluff  (Fig.  59),  sometimes,  especially 
near  the  mouth  of  a  stream,  broadening  out  to  quite  an  extensive 
plain.  At  Silver  Creek  and  at  the  mouth  of  Cattaraugus 
Creek,  the  beach  deposits  are  very  extensive  ;  and  in  the  latter, 
the  action  of  the  wind  by  building  sand  dune  hills  has  raised  the 
level  above  the  reach  of  the  highest  waves.  In  these  places  also, 
bars  are  being  built  opposite  the  mouth  of  streams  (Fig.  60). 


60. — Present  bar  formation  at  Silver  Creek. 

The  reason  why  these  beaches  are  being  built  is  that  the  sup¬ 
ply  of  gravel  is  greater  than  the  waves  are  able  to  remove.  In 
some  cases  the  supply  comes  mainly  from  the  rocky  headlands, 
in  others  from  streams.  Where  it  cannot  all  be  ground  down  to 
a  fine  clay,  that  can  be  carried  off  shore  and  dropped  to  the  bot¬ 
tom,  it  accumulates  as  beach  gravel  ;  and  so,  year  by  year, the 
beaches  encroach  upon  the  lake.  The  crest  of  the  beach,  which 
may  be  ten  feet  above  the  lake  level,  represents  the  highest  point 
to  which  the  lake  waves  can  reach  and  bear  gravel  :  in  other 
words  it  represents  the  height  reached  by  the  violent  storm  waves. 


io6 


Buixktin  109. 


Since  this  varies  with  the  exposure,  the  crest  of  the  beach  may 
vary  in  height,  as  we  have  seen  that  it  varies  in  width.  This 


6r. — Present  beach  of  Lake  Erie ,  north  of  Dunkirk . 


FORMER  LAKE 
LEVEL 


variation  amounts  to  only  a  few  feet,  the  beach  being  higher  on 
exposed  than  on  sheltered  coasts. 

Generally  the  top  of  the  beach  is  nearly  level  (Figs.  59  and  61)  ; 
but  where  accumulations  are  made  off  shore,  as  they  sometimes  are 
where  streams 
bring  consid¬ 
erably  more 
gravel  than 
the  waves  can 
dispose  of,  a 
bar  is  built, 
and  this  slopes 
both  ways 
(see  Figs.  60 
and  62B).  Also 
compare  with 
Figs.  62A  and 

65)- 


LAKE 


BAR 


lagoon 


SHORE 


B 

62. — Cross  section  of  bar:  ancient  A;  modern  B. 


Therefore  the  top  of  the  true  beach  is  a  plain  of  varying  width, 
whose  elevation  is  nearly  uniform,  both  along  the  shore  and  at 


Chautauqua  Graph  Belt. 


107 

right  angles  to  it.  If  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  bar,  the  elevation  re¬ 
mains  nearly  uniform  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  bar, 
but  at  right  angles  to  this  it  rapidly  descends  in  both  directions. 
In  the  beach,  the  flat  topped  plain  is  faced  on  the  lakeward  side  by 
a  rapidly  sloping  front ;  and  this  descent  continues  beneath  the  lake 
waters.  (Fig.  63). 


Therefore  on  the  shore  of  the  present  lake  we  have  a  terrace 
plain  of  a  nearly  uniform  level,  and  the  terrace  slope  (Figs.  58,  59  and 
61),  the  whole  being  composed  of  well  rounded  and  water-worn 
gravel  and  sand  (Figs.  58  and  64).  We  also  find  numerous  wave- 


64.  — Pebbles  of  the  modern  beach  at  Barcelona. 

cut  cliffs  either  in  the  clay  (Fig.  61)  or  in  the  rock  (Fig.  48)  ;  and 
opposite  the  mouths  of  the  streams  there  are  often  formed  bars  (Fig. 
60)  which  are  welded  at  their  base  to  the  beach,  and  stretch  more 
or  less  completely  across  the  stream  mouth.  Sometimes  there  are 
spits  of  gravel ;  and  there  are  numerous  other  minor  details  of 
shore  line  features. 


65  . — Section  through  a  bar.  Midway  between  Sheridan  and  Fredonia. 
Beach  to  be  seen  in  the  background  in  the  gap  cut  through  the  bar. 


66. — Photograph  showing  pebbly  nature  of  old  beach  terrace  near  Sheridan 


Chautauqua  Grape  Beet. 


109 


THE  ANCIENT  BEACHES- 


Most  of  the  features  just  described  are  found  also  in  the  gravel 
ridges.  They  usually  have  all  of  the  characteristics  of  beaches 
(Figs.  56  and  66),  and  near  the  streams  they  are  often  trans¬ 
formed  to  bars  (Fig.  65).  The  resemblance  is  so  close  that  even 
the  most  casual  observers  have  noticed  it  and  formed  the  theory 
that  the  ridges  were  made  by  the  lake  waters.  So  far  no  fossils 
of  lake  shells  have  been  found  in  the  gravels,  though  some  have 
been  reported  by  residents  of  the  region.  It  would  be  of  great 
importance  to  find  these*  for  they  would  determine  beyond  ques¬ 
tion  whether  the  gravel  ridges  are  lake  or  ocean  beaches.  There 
is  little  reason  for  believing  the  latter,  although  this  explanation 
has  been  suggested  by  some. 

The  gravel  ridges. — In  passing  from  one  end  of  the  district  to 
the  other,  numerous  differences  are  found  in  the  gravel  ridges. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  change  is  in  the  number  of  beaches 


1  \  o 
100 
90 
SO 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 


SI. 


12  13  14  15  16  17  16  /9  20  2  f  22  23  24  25  26  27  28  29  30  3 1 

S.2.  S3 

247.1 


II 


no 

100 


Uf  PER  90 

BEACH 
MISSING  80 


70 

€0 

50 

4.0 

30 

20 

ro 


67. — Diagram  to  show  the  elevation  of  the  different  terraces  (in  thirty-one 
sections )  above  the  base  of  the  lowest  terrace.  /,  at  state  line  ;  30,  just  east 

of  Silver  Creek. 

(Fig.  67).  From  the  base  of  the  lowest  to  the  crest  of  the  highest, 
there  is  a  vertical  range  of  from  85  to  100  feetf  in  a  distance  which 
is  often  less  than  a  half  mile.  In  this  distance  there  are  always 
two  distinct  ridges  or  beach  terraces  and  usually  several.  There 


*If  any  reader  should  know  of  the  existence  of  fossil  shells  like  those  now 
living  in  the  lake,  I  should  be  very  glad  to  be  informed  of  the  occurrence. 

f  The  elevation  of  the  lake  is  573  feet  above  sea  level ;  and  of  the  base 
above  the  lake,  as  determined  by  a  line  of  levels  run  at  Portland,  147  feet. 
Therefore  at  this  point  the  base  of  the  lowest  beach  ridge  is  720  feet  above  sea 
level. 


I  IO 


Bulletin  109. 


seem  to  be  five  beaches,  though  it  is  rare  to  find  all  developed  in 
the  same  section.  In  thirty-one  sections  whose  elevations  were 
measured  with  the  aneroid  barometer,  only  one  (Number  17)  clearly 
exhibited  five  ridges.  In  Section  1  there  are  six  gravel  ridges,  but 
one  or  two  of  these  may  have  been  bars  opposite  the  stream  mouth. 
There  are  four  beaches  in  Section  10,  in  which  the  upper  beach 
was  not  measured  ;  .and  there  are  also  four  in  Section  31  where  the 
upper  beach  is  absent.  In  several  places  (nine  sections,  8,  11, 
12,  13,  22,25,  28>  29  and  30)  four  beaches  appear  in  the  same  north 
and  south  line.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  places  where  the 
three  lower  beaches  are  merged  into  one  terrace,  or  in  which  one 
or  two  of  the  beaches  are  so  indistinct  as  to  be  scarcely  notice¬ 
able  (notably  section  16). 

From  State  Tine  to  Sheridan  the  upper  beach  is  quite  distinct  ; 
but  east  of  that  place  this  beach  begins  to  lose  distinctness  and  it 
disappears  just  east  of  Silver  Creek.  The  lower  beaches  extend 
eastward,  one  disappearing  just  south  of  Hamburg,  the  others  ex¬ 
tending  to  the  vicinity  of  Crittenden  where  they  also  die  out. 
Without  analyzing  my  measurements  here,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
crest  of  the  first  or  lowest  beach  ranges  from  15-20  feet  above  the 
base  of  the  terrace  ;  the  second  beach  ranges  between  10-15  feet 
above  this  ;  the  third  from  10-15  feet  higher  ;  the  fourth  also  10-15 
feet  higher  ;  and  the  fifth  between  30-40  feet  above  this.  As  one 
drives  along  the  main  road  to  Buffalo,  the  face  of  the  upper  terrace  is 
frequently  visible,  while  the  road  itself  is  usually  upon  either  the 
lowest,  or,  more  commonly  on  the  second  level.  From  just  west 
of  Silver  Creek  to  within  three  miles  of  Fredonia,  it  follows  the 
lowest;  but  west  of  this  is  more  commonly  on  the  upper  level, 
though  at  times  descending  to  the  lower.  When  visible,  the  third 
and  fourth  beaches  (measured  from  the  base)  are  indicated  by  slight 
gravel  ridges.  There  is  so  much  variability  in  these  respects 
that  to  make  the  feature  entirely  clear  it  would  be  necessary  to 
the  region  in  much  detail.  From  figure  67  one  will  obtain  an 
describe  idea  of  the  irregularity  of  level,  throughout  which  how¬ 
ever  there  is  considerable  uniformity. 

Below  the  upper  terrace  there  is  usually  a  bench  or  plain  which 
slopes  quite  uniformly  up  to  the  base  of  the  terrace  and  on  the 
northern  margin  ends  in  a  steep  descent ;  but  in  a  number  of  places 


Chautauqua  Graph  Bkut. 


i  1 1 


this  plain  is  diversified  by  slight  benches  of  gravel,  marking  some 
of  the  intermediate  beaches.  From  the  crest  of  the  upper  terrace 
towards  the  south  there  is  also  a  plain,  which  is  usually  very 
narrow,  but  is  sometimes  gradually  merged  into  abroad  till-cov- 
ered  plain  (Fig.  54). 

From  the  lake  shore  to  the  base  of  the  first  gravel  ridge,  near 
the  main  road,  there  are  no  beaches  of  a  distinct  character,  al¬ 
though  in  one  or  two  places  there  are  indications  of  wave  action. 
Over  this  plain,  which  is  often  one  or  two  miles  in  width,  the  soil 
is  mostly  of  clay, as  has  already  been  noted.  However,  north  of  the 
town  of  Portland  there  is  an  ancient  sand  dune  region,  in  which  the 
sand  is  no  longer  in  movement,  having  probably  had  its  features 


68. — Front  face  of  lower  beach  terrace  just  west  of  Portland.  East  of  sec¬ 
tion  line  No.  2 ,  Fig.  67. 

introduced  immediately  after  the  lake  water  left  the  land.  The  sand 
is  fine  in  texture,  quite  like  moulders’  sand,  and  it  is  heaped  into 
the  typical  conical  peaks,  with  enclosed  craters,  which  characterize 
sand  dune  belts.  Here  the  topography  is  very  rough  ;  but  else¬ 
where  the  prevailing  condition  is  that  of  a  plain,  sloping  lake- 
ward. 

Variatio?is  in  the  gravel  ridges. — Not  only  do  the  number  of 
the  gravel  ridges  vary,  but  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in 
their  characteristics  from  one  point  to  another.  Generally  the 
slope  of  the  terrace  front  is  abrupt  (Fig.  68),  and  the  top  quite 
level ;  but,  as  has  already  been  noted,  it  may  be  in  the  form  of  a 


I  12 


Buixktin  109. 


ridge  or  bar  instead  of  a  beach.  There  is  also  a  variation  in  width, 
which  in  some  cases  is  very  marked.  Notably  opposite  the 
mouths  of  streams  the  width  of  the  gravel  is  greatly  increased, 
the  deposit  there  being  in  the  nature  of  a  delta.  Here  the  steep 
front  of  the  terrace  disappears  and  is  replaced  by  a  gravel  slope, 
crossed  by  numerous  gullies  and  traversed  by  ridges  of  gravel ; 
and  this  gravel  extends  for  a  considerable  distance  toward  the 
lake,  gradually  becoming  a  sand,  and  then,  near  the  lake,  a  clay. 
The  best  delta  in  the  area  studied  is  that  upon  which  the  town,  of 
Fredonia  is  situated  ;  but  there  are  other  similar  deposits  near  the 
mouth  of  nearly  every  stream  of  considerable  size. 

Just  as  in  the  modern  beach,  there  is  also  a  variation  in  texture 
in  any  single  gravel  ridge.  But  quite  unlike  the  modern  beach, 
the  material  is  always  a  gravel.  In  the  entire  region  studied  I 
have  found  no  considerable  part  of  either  terrace  made  of  sand. 
In  small  areas  there  is  often  much  sand  ;  but  nearly  everywhere 
there  are  layers  of  rounded  pebbles  in  close  association. 

On  the  present  shore  there  are  many  wave-cut  cliffs  of  shale ; 
but  in  the  entire  region  occupied  by  the  gravel  ridges,  from  State 
Line  to  Hamburg,  I  have  not  found  a  single  rock  cliff. 
In  some  cases  wells  have  reached  rock  near  the  front  edge  of  the 
gravel  terrace,  suggesting  the  possibility  of  such  cliffs  veneered 
over  with  gravel  which  has  slipped  down  from  above.  This  would 
be  possible  only  with  low  rock  cliffs  ;  and  we  may  therefore  con¬ 
clude  that  in  this  part  of  the  shore  ne  there  are  no  wave-cut 
cliffs  which  are  at  all  comparable  in  size  to  those  of  the  present 
lake  shore.  Whether  there  are  any  wave-cut  cliffs  of  gravel  I 
am  not  so  certain.  There  are  places  where  the  lowest  terrace  may 
be  of  this  nature;  but  this  could  not  be  proved,  for  beach 
gravel  covers  the  face  and  base. 

In  any  event,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  prevailing  feature  of 
these  ancient  shore  lines  is  the  wave-built,  instead  of  the  wave-cut 
terrace.  In  this  respect  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  fea¬ 
tures  of  the  present  lake  shore,  and  a  resemblance  to  such  coasts 
as  the  sandy  shores  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Carolinas.  This  is  a 
feature  which  needs  to  be  explained  and  will  be  discussed  in  later 
pages. 


Chautauqua  Grape;  Belt. 


“3 

Irregularities  of  level  of  gravel  ridges . — When  formed  by  the 
lake  waters,  these  ridges  were  essentially  horizontal.  That  is  to 
say,  leaving  out  of  question  certain  minor  variations  from  place 
to  place,  such  as  we  see  on  any  beach  at  present,  the  average 
crest  of  each  beach  from  one  end  of  the  region  to  the  other,  was  a 
horizontal  line,  just  as  is  the  case  on  the  present  lake  shore. 
Still,  at  present,  these  ridges  are  not  horizontal.  As  determined 
by  careful  lines  of  levels,  and  by  numerous  elevations  obtained  by 
other  means,  they  are  tilted  so  that  the  eastern  end  is  higher  than 
the  western.  This  necessarily  records  a  change  in  the  level  of 
the  land  since  the  beaches  were  deposited.  Along  the  line  of 
beaches  from  Cleveland  to  Silver  Creek  the  change  amounts  to 
over  90  feet.  Therefore,  since  the  distance  is  about  150  miles,  the 
change  in  level  amounts  on  the  average  to  about  three-fifths  of  a 
foot  per  mile.  The  levels  made  in  the  grape  belt  are  not  of  decisive 
value  for  the  distance  between  them  is  not  great.  Still  in  the  pro¬ 
files  (Fig.  69)  one  sees  that  very  nearly  the  same  changeisrecorded.* 

Interpretation. — For  a  long  time  we  have  known  more  or  less 
concerning  elevated  lake  beaches  which  seem  to  nearly  surround 
the  Great  Takes.  Different  geologists  have  studied  different  sec¬ 
tions  and  so  we  have  many  scraps  of  knowledge  ;  but  these  are 
not  sufficiently  complete  to  allow  of  any  full  statement  of  their 
meaning.  Indeed,  one  of  the  needs  of  North  American  geology  is 
to  have  some  one  person  follow  this  subject  to  an  end  by  tracing 
the  beaches  not  only  through  the  States,  but  also  through  Canada. 
There  is  much  yet  to  be  learned,  though  we  are  in  a  position  to 
state  the  more  general  facts  of  the  history. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  these  ridges  were  formed  in  water. 
Their  resemblance  to  the  shore  lines  of  the  lake  is  so  perfect,  in 
almost  every  particular,  that  the  conclusion  is  almost  forced  upon 
us  that  the  water  in  which  they  were  formed  was  lake  water  ;  and 
this  conclusion  scarcely  admits  of  a  reasonable  doubt.  No  other 
explanation  than  beach  origin  can  be  admitted,  for  no  other  pos- 

*From  Section  1  to  Section  3  the  distance  is  36  miles.  The  crest  of  the 
second  beach  is  185  feet  above  lake  level  at  State  Line,  195  feet  at  Portland 
and  221  feet  just  east  of  Silver  Creek.  In  other  words,  the  beach  increases 
in  elevation  at  the  rate  of  about  1  foot  a  mile.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the 
uplift  is  greater  in  the  east  than  in  the  west. 


TOTAL  LENGTH  OF  SECTION  9.812  FEET  .moraine 


69. — Profiles  to  show  the  height  of  the  terraces  above  Lake  Erie.  Beach  ridges  shown  by  inverted  V's.  Height 
above  Erie  indicated  in  feet  and  tenths  of  feet.  Distance  between  stations  (; marked  at  base  of  diagram)  given  in  feet. 


Chautauqua  Graph  Belt. 


115 

sible  cause  can  be  found  ;  and  if  of  beach  origin,  then  the  beaches 
were  formed  either  in  lake  or  ocean.  In  support  of  the  latter 
hypothesis  no  single  fact  can  be  found  which  does  not  equally 
apply  to  the  theory  of  origin  in  lake  waters  ;  and  against  the 
ocean  theory  there  are  facts  which  seem  to  entirely  exclude  it.  If 
these  were  formed  in  the  ocean  they  should  be  continuous  ;  but 
the  beaches  end  quite  abruptly,  the  upper  one  just  south  of  the 
town  of  Silver  Creek,  the  next,  south  of  the  town  of  Hamburg, 
and  the  others  and  lower  ones  near  Crittenden.  There  is  no  known 
reason  why  ocean  beaches  should  thus  terminate,  while,  as  we 
shall  see,  there  is  an  excellent  reason  why  lakes  should  cease  to 
build  beaches  at  these  points. 

Everything  then  points  to  lake  origin  ;  and  all  the  observed  facts 

may  be  accounted  for  by  this  theory,  while  no  known  fact  opposes 

\ 

it.  Therefore  we  may  consider  it  more  than  a  theory  : — it  is  a 
proved  fact.  There  remains  to  be  explained  ( 1 )  why  Take  Erie 
should  have  been  so  much  higher  than  now,  (2)  why  the  beaches 
end  so  abruptly,  and  (3)  why  they  are  no  longer  horizontal. 
These  facts  can  best  be  explained  in  the  course  of  a  brief  state¬ 
ment  of  the  geological  history  of  the  region. 

RfiSUMfi  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY. 

Before  the  last  geological  period,  the  northern  part  of  New  York 
had  valleys  and  hills,  plains  and  escarpments,  very  much  as  at 
present,  though  the  details  of  topography  were  quite  different. 
Among  the  more  important  differences  was  the  absence  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  which  occupy  valleys  that  have  been  transformed  to 
lakes  largely  by  the  action  of  the  glacier.  Over  this  country  the 
glacier  ice  slowly  advanced  until  practically  the  whole  of  New 
York  was  covered  ;  and  for  a  time  this  ice  sheet  ground  its  way 
over  the  rocks,  carrying  fragments  southward  and  wearing  down 
the  valleys  and  the  hills  as  it  passed.  All  life  was  of  course  ex¬ 
terminated  from  the  region,  and  the  land  was  transformed  to  a 
dreary  ice  plateau,  like  that  of  central  Greenland.  Why  it  came, 
or  how  long  it  remained,  are  questions  which  the  geologists  of 
the  future  must  answer,  if  we  ever  learn.  That  it  came  and 
worked,  performing  certain  tasks,  we  of  the  present  century  have 
determined. 


Bulletin  109. 


1 16 

At  last,  by  some  change  in  the  condition  of  the  climate,  the 
ice  sheet  began  to  melt  away  and  to  uncover  the  buried  land.  It 
seems  to  have  done  this  quite  rapidly,  though  somewhat  inter¬ 
mittently.  That  is,  it  would  stand  for  awhile  with  its  front  along 
a  certain  line,  then  quite  rapidly  melt  away  and  transfer  its  front 
to  a  distance  of  a  dozen  or  score  of  miles  to  the  north,  where  it 
would  again  take  a  stand.  This  is  indicated  by  the  moraines, 
which  are  irregular  hills  of  glacial  deposits  that  were  accumu¬ 
lated  at  the  front  of  the  ice.  The  glacier  was  carrying  a  load  of 
rock  materials  ;  and  when  these  reached  the  front  they  were 
dropped  from  the  melting  ice  and  therefore  accumulated.  If  the 
ice  stood  long  enough,  a  moraine  was  built  along  the  margin  ;  if 
its  stand  was  brief  no  morainic  accumulations  were  made.  One 
of  these  moraines  passes  through  Jamestown,  another  past  the 
northern  end  of  Brakes  Chautauqua,  Bear  and  Cassadaga,  and  in 
a  general  east  and  west  line  back  of  the  crest  of  the  escarpment. 
Another  line  passes  just  east  of  Silver  Creek,  one  near  Hamburg, 
and  another  through  Crittenden. 

Beneath  and  in  the  ice  was  a  load  of  rock  fragments  which  were 
moving  southward.  They  were  being  ground  over  one  another 
and  over  the  bed  rock,  so  that  they  were  being  reduced  to  clay  by 
the  scouring  action  of  the  ice  which  worked  somewhat  like  a 
great  sandpaper.  When  the  glacier  disappeared,  this  material 
was  left  where  it  happened  to  be ;  and  so  a  soil  was  deposited 
which  was  composed  of  clay  and  pebbles  derived  from  various 
sources  to  the  north.  This  till  or  boulder  clay  was  dragged  into 
many  of  the  old  valleys,  either  wholly  or  partially  filling  them, 
so  that  the  streams  have  often  been  obliged  to  cut  new  channels 
in  the  shale.  Sometimes  these  rock  gorges  end  abruptly  where 
the  stream  crosses  or  flows  in  the  old  drift-filled  valleys  ;  and 
then  the  shale  wall  is  changed  to  one  of  till,  in  which  the  boulder 
clay  is  sometimes  one  or  two  hundred  feet  deep,  as  is  the  case  in 
parts  of  the  Gulf  near  Westfield. 

As  the  ice  withdrew,  with  a  south-facing  front,  it  naturally  in- 
terferred  with  all  north-flowing  streams.  It  formed  a  dam  and 
caused  many  reversals  of  drainage.  The  St.  Lawrence  valley 
was  occupied  by  the  ice  when  the  front  had  retreated  north  of  the 
escarpment  which  partly  encloses  the  grape  belt.  Therefore  these 


Chautauqua  Graph  Bkut. 


i  i7 

north-flowing  streams  could  not  drain  by  the  present  outlet,  but 
were  ponded  back  and  forced  to  take  another  place  of  outflow, 
and  this  was  of  course  the  lowest  point  in  the  enclosing  hills,  a 
point  which  was  naturally  higher  than  the  present  outlet.  While 
the  lake  was  held  at  its  upper  place  of  outflow  it  was  building  the 
upper  beach,  which  has  been  called  Sheridan  beach.  The  outflow 
of  this  lake  was  then  at  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  into  the  Wabash  and 
the  beach  may  be  traced  continuously  to  this  outlet.  However,  in 
the  east  this  beach  comes  to  an  end  just  south-east  of  Silver  Creek; 
and  near  its  eastern  end  there  is  a  tract  of  moraine.* 

To  the  southward  of  the  town  of  Hamburg,  on  the  road  to  New 
Boston,  there  is  another  morainic  belt,  and  a  second  beach,  which 
can  be  quite  continuously  traced  from  west  of  Silver  Creek  nearly  to 
Hamburg,  begins  to  disappear  as  this  town  is  neared.  The  last 
place  at  which  it  could  be  distinctly  determined  is  near  Eden 
Church,  southwest  of  Hamburg;  but  a  third  beach  from  the  top 
passes  directly  through  Hamburg  and  has  been  found  to  disappear 
near  Crittenden.  In  each  case,  as  the  moraine  is  approached,  the 
beach  becomes  less  distinct  and  finally  can  be  traced  no  farther. 

This  shows  that  while  these  beaches  were  being  built  at  their 
respective  levels,  the  ice  was  standing  at  different  places  and  was 
bringing  materials  which  were  being  laid  down  at  its  front  in  the 
form  of  moraines.  At  first  the  ce  front  passed  near  Silver  Creek 
and  then  the  upper  beach  was  made,  while  the  outflow  of  the  lake 
was  past  Fort  Wayne.  Then  the  edge  of  the  ice  withdrew  for  a 
distance  until  some  lower  outlet  was  formed,  and  again  to  a  still 
lower,  more  northern  point,  when  another  and  still  lower  outlet  was 
established.  One  of  these  last  two  outlets  was  past  Chicago  ;  but 
we  know  too  little  about  the  subject  to  state  which  one  represents 
this  stage,  or  to  tell  where  the  third  outlet  was. 

*  At  last  the  ice  retreated  far  enough  for  the  Erie  basin  to  take 
its  present  outflow  past  Buffalo  ;  but  the  valley  of  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  was  still  ice  dammed,  and  Ontario  was  raised  to  the  level  of 
the  overflow  of  the  Mokawk  valley.  Thus  temporarily  the  sev¬ 
eral  Great  Lakes  had  their  level  raised  by  ice  dams  ;  and  during 
this  time  distinct  shore  lines  were  formed. 

*This  moraine  has  not  been  traced,  so  that  nothing  can  be  stated  concerning 
its  extension  ;  but  it  appears  in  quite  distinct  development  about  two  miles 
east  of  Silver  Creek,  extending  nearly  to  the  town. 


1 1 8 


Bulletin  109. 


There  are  some  differences  from  the  present  shore  lines  still  to 
be  accounted  for.  Why,  for  instance,  are  there  no  rock  cliffs,  but 
everywhere  a  series  of  beach  gravels,  a  condition  of  so  much  im¬ 
portance  to  the  grape  grower  ?  It  would  have  been  a  serious  dis¬ 
advantage  to  have  had  the  vineyards  traversed  by  two  or  three 
rock  escarpments  like  that  of  the  present  lake  shore.  In  the  first 
place,  the  question  whether  the  waves  and  currents  shall  cut  or 
build,  depends  upon  whether  they  are  able  to  remove  all  of  the 
material  that  they  obtain  by  one  cause  or  another.  That  is  the 
reason  why  beaches  are  not  built  on  some  of  the  exposed  head¬ 
lands  of  the  lake,  while  they  are  commonly  present  in  the  enclos¬ 
ed  bays,  and  why  the  gravel  accumulations  opposite  the  mouths 
of  the  streams  are  more  extensive  than  elsewhere. 

There  are  various  reasons  why  the  waters  of  the  ancient 
lake  were  less  able  to  remove  the  materials  furnished  them  than 
is  the  case  with  the  present  lake.  As  the  ice  was  leaving  the  land, 
there  was  at  first  a  time  when  no  vegetation  covered  the  clay  soil, 
and  when  the  whole  surface  was  attacked  by  the  rain  just  as  a 
plowed  field  is  to  day.  Therefore  the  streams  were  given  more 
materials  to  carry  to  the  lake.  In  the  second  place,  the  rains 
must  also  have  been  heavier  when  the  cold  ice  wall  was  melting 
and  furnishing  vapor  to  the  air.  Besides  this,  the  streams  entered 
the  lake  at  the  base  of  the  hill,  while  now  they  flow  for  a  mile  or  two 
over  a  plain.  Another  important  reason  is  the  fact  that  the  shores 
were  gradually  rising.  Therefore,  for  various  reasons,  the  lake  was 
given  more  materials  than  the  waves  and  currents  could  dispose 
of,  and  hence  they  accumulated  in  the  gravel  ridges  which  we  find. 

A  second  important  difference  between  the  old  shores  and  the 
present  ones,  is  the  fact  that  they  are  no  longer  horizontal.  This 
is  due  to  a  tilting  of  the  land  since  the  beaches  were  formed. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  land  is  now  and  has  been  in 
the  past  in  a  state  of  motion.  Actual  historic  record  proves  this 
in  several  places,  and  geological  study  proves  it  in  many  more. 
Since  the  glacial  period  the  movement  in  this  part  of  the  land  has 
been  that  of  tilting,  with  greater  elevation  in  the  northeast. 
Therefore  these  beaches  do  not  show  so  great  a  change  as  they 
would  if  they  extended  in  a  more  nearly  north  and  south  direc¬ 
tion.  The  amount  of  tilting  varies  from  place  to  place,  but  in  the 
Chautauqua  grape  belt  averages  not  far  from  one  foot  per  mile. 


70. — .Rainfall  in  inches ,  giving  total  for  the  year.  71. — Average  temperature  for  the  year  in  degrees 

From  report  of  the  State  Weather  Bureau.  Farenheit .  From  report  of  the  State  Weather  Bureau. 


120 


Bulletin  109. 


A  final  question  that  we  may  ask,  is  how  long  ago  this  happen¬ 
ed.  To  this  no  definite  answer  can  be  returned.  A  study  of 
Niagara  gorge,  which  has  been  formed  since  Take  Brie  fell  below 
the  lowest  gravel  ridge,  seems  to  show  a  period  between  4,000 
and  15,000  years.  There  is  some  reason  for  believing  that  the 
first  is  nearer  to  the  truth  than  the  last,  and  that  it  may  even  be  a 
shorter  period  than  this.  Otherwise  it  would  be  difficult  to  ac¬ 
count  for  the  fact  that  these  gravel  ridges  have  resisted  destruc¬ 
tion  so  well.  Nor  can  we  state  any  more  definitely  how  long  it 
took  the  lake  waters  to  build  the  beaches.  They  probably  do  not 
represent  a  great  length  of  time,  for  materials  were  apparently 
rapidly  supplied. 

CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS. 

While  the  soil  is  a  very  important  element  in  the  value  of  the 
grape  land,  the  climate  is  of  even  greater  importance.  Hence, 
while  this  study  was  not  made  primarily  with  the  object  of  deter¬ 
mining  the  climatic  peculiarities  of  the  belt,  some  features  of  a 
general  nature  were  so  pronounced  that  they  attracted  attention. 
The  lake  is  a  great  modifier  of  climate.  In  the  spring,  by  reason 
of  the  low  temperature  of  its  waters,  it  holds  back  the  vegetation 
and  this  tends  to  keep  it  behind  the  ordinary  frosts.  Its  very 
presence  checks  frost  by  moderating  the  temperature  of  the  neigh¬ 
boring  air.  In  the  summer,  the  water  tends  to  cool  the  air  of  the 
day  and  to  keep  the  nocturnal  temperature  fairly  high.  During 
the  fall,  the  water  has  been  warmed  by  the  summer  sun,  and  the 
influence  of  this  warm  body  of  water  lengthens  the  growing  sea¬ 
son  and  tends  to  keep  off  the  early  autumn  frosts. 

There  are  many  other  influencees,  but  nothing  of  importance 
can  be  stated  excepting  on  the  basis  of  a  careful  study  extending 
over  several  years.  The  lake  breeze  of  the  day  must  moderate 
the  daytime  temperature  ;  and  the  land  breeze  of  the  night  may 
in  some  cases  so  keep  the  air  in  motion  as  to  prevent  frosts.  That 
there  is  a  marked  influence  upon  climate  as  a  result  of  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  topography  and  neighborhood  of  water,  is  evident  at 
the  very  first.  The  sketch  maps  (Figs.  70  and  71)  show  that  the 
mean  annual  rainfall  is  greater  on  the  escarpment  than  on  the 
lake  plain,  and  that  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  hills  is 


Chautauqua  Grape  Beet. 


I  2  I 


lower  than  that  near  the  lake.  During  the  disastrous  frost  of 
May,  1895,  the  vineyards  in  the  grape  belt,  taken  as  an  average, 
suffered  less  near  the  lake,  while  those  farthest  from  the  water 
were  most  injured.  Still  there  were  cases  of  vineyards  near  the 
lake  that  suffered  considerably,  while  some  on  the  escarpment 
were  scarcely  touched  * 

MOST  FAVORABLE  PLACES  FOR  THE  LOCATION 

OF  VINEYARDS. 

As  has  been  said,  there  are  two  factors  in  the  problem  which 
deals  with  the  reason  for  the  conditions  in  the  grape  belt,  one  cli¬ 
matic  the  other  geologic.  The  climatic  features  are  dependent 
upon  the  location  near  a  large  lake,  and  the  presence  of  the  bound¬ 
ing  escarpment,  which  confines  this  influence  to  a  narrow  limit. 
In  the  eastern  part,  where  the  escarpment  is  relatively  low  and 
far  from  the  lake,  the  influence  of  the  lake  is  much  less  distinct. f 
This  is  the  main  reason  why  the  grape  belt  does  not  extend 
far  east  of  Silver  Creek.  Even  in  the  distance  of  a  few  miles, 
from  the  lake  to  the  crest  of  the  hill,  where  grape  raising  practi¬ 
cally  ceases,  there  is  much  variation  in  climate,  as  has  already 
been  pointed  out. 

Considering  the  three  belts  of  soil  from  the  standpoint  of  their 
adaptability  to  grape  raising,  the  hillside  soils  are  of  least  value, 

*  The  behavior  of  this  frost  was  altogether  remarkable,  leaving  some  dis¬ 
tricts  or  vineyards  almost  unharmed,  and  nearly  ruining  the  crop  in  others, 
while  even  in  the  same  vineyard  these  extremes  were  sometimes  noticed. 
This  was  probably  chiefly  due  to  eddies  of  the  air,  for  even  though  air  is  al¬ 
most  quiet,  it  is  still  in  uneven  motion.  One  may  see  this  illustrated  on  a 
calm  day  bv  noticing  the  movements  of  a  column  of  smoke.  The  air,  being 
invisible  does  not  reveal  these  movements,  and  we  become  aware  of  them 
only  when  the  conditions  are  exceptional,  as  when  a  frost  is  dealing  out  des¬ 
truction  to  vegetation.  The  condition  of  the  ground  also  affects  the  frost, 
and  the  question  whether  it  is  dry  or  moist,  freshly  plowed  or  turf  covered, 
whether  there  are  trees  or  pastures  or  plowed  ground  in  the  neighborhood, 
all  have  their  influence  ;  but  this  subject  has  never  been  properly  studied, 
and  it  is  not  possible  to  state  just  how  these  differences  affect  frost  action. 

fThis  was  well  illustrated  during  a  frost  in  the  middle  of  September,  1895. 
At  Westfield  there  was  no  indication  of  a  frost,  east  of  Silver  Creek  signs  of 
its  effect  began  to  appear,  and  at  Hamburg,  the  frost  had  done  considerable 
damage  to  the  more  delicate  forms  of  vegetation. 


122 


Bulletin  109. 


the  climate  is  least  favorable,  and  the  surface  configuration  of  the 
land  is  least  adapted  to  this  industry.  The  lake  clay  soils  are  of 
poorer  grade  than  the  gravel  soils,  but  the  climate  is  in  favor  of 
this  belt.  The  defect  of  soil  texture,  which  is  against  most  of 
the  lake  clay  soils,  can  be  readily  overcome  by  a  very  little  intel¬ 
ligent  study  of  the  conditions  ;  and  so  there  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  the  vineyards  should  not  extend  from  the  base  of  the  hill  to 
the  lake.  Indeed,  the  favorable  climatic  conditions  make  this  in¬ 
dustry  possible  even  on  the  hillsides  for  a  considerable  elevation 
above  the  plain. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  GRAVEL  RIDGES. 

One  of  the  most  striking  influences  of  the  gravel  ridges  is  upon 
the  roads.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  distance,  each  of  the  two 
main  gravel  strips  is  occupied  by  a  road  which  is  remarkable  for 
its  general  levelness  and  for  the  gravelly  material  which  makes 
the  excellent  roadbed.  Travelling  is  therefore  extremely  easy, 
and  it  is  very  probable  that  this  natural  roadway  was  the  site  of 
an  Indian  trail.  Even  the  position  of  the  towns  is  often  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  gravel  ridges.  Several  of  the  villages  and  towns, 
east  of  Silver  Creek,  are,  (including  Hamburg)  on  the  gravel ; 
and  west  of  this  town,  in  New  York,  every  place  of  any  size 
on  the  Erie  shore  (excepting  Dunkirk,  which  is  so  situated 
because  of  its  port)  is  located  on  the  gravel  ridges.  This  is  true 
of  Sheridan,  Fredonia,  Brockton,  Portland,  Westfield  and  Ripley. 

Another  important  influence  is  upon  the  water  supply.  The 
gravel  furnishes  a  reservoir  through  which  the  water  percolates 
along  the  junction  with  the  clay  ;  and  at  the  base  of  the  gravel 
ridges,  springs  occur  where  the  line  of  junction  nears  or  reaches 
the  surface.  So  important  is  this  underground  reservoir,  that  not 
only  are  the  houses  on  the  ridges  easily  supplied  with  water,  but 
houses  below  the  beaches  are  in  some  cases  furnished  with  water 
from  this  source. 

Of  course  the  most  important  influence  is  upon  the  fruit  indus¬ 
try,  and  this  has  already  been  discussed  in  sufficient  detail.  Two 
or  three  suggestions  may  however  be  in  place.  There  is  no  rea¬ 
son  why  the  fruit  district  should  not  extend  beyond  Silver  Creek. 
For  several  miles  beyond  that  town  the  conditions  are  favorable, 
though  they  become  less  and  less  so  as  the  distance  increases. 
Another  point  is  the  feasibility  of  increasing  the  range  of  crops. 
The  climate  and  soil  are  well  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  fruits  which 
are  common  to  this  latitude ;  and  one  would  suppose  that  even 
the  tobacco  plant  might  be  profitably  grown  in  a  region  so  pecu¬ 
liarly  favored.  Almost  all  conditions  have  conspired  to  make 
this  one  of  the  most  favored  spots  in  the  state. 


R.  S.  Tarr. 


Bulletin  iio.  January,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  IM .  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


EXTENSION  WORK 

IN  HORTICULTURE. 


By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 


Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 

OFFICERS  OF 

I.  P.  Roberts, 

E.  L.  Williams, 

H.  W.  Smith, 


Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 

THE  STATION. 

Director. 

-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 


ASSISTANTS. 

M.  V.  Slingerland, 

G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 

Horticulture. 

Agriculture. 

Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  The  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


The  Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir:  A  report  of  progress  of  the  work  which  has  been  under¬ 
taken  by  the  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
in  pursuance  of  the  requirements  of  the  Experiment  Station  Ex¬ 
tension  Bill,  is  herewith  submitted. 

At  the  outset,  it  is  proper  to  say  that  this  bill  originated  entire¬ 
ly  with  the  people.  The  beginnings  of  it  occurred  in  1893,  when 
certain  Chautauqua  County  persons  asked  the  Station  to  under¬ 
take  some  experiment  wTork  in  their  vineyards.  We  replied  that 
while  we  should  like. to  take  up  the  investigations,  our  funds  were 
insufficient  to  meet  the  expense  without  endangering  work  in 
which  we  were  already  engaged ;  and  this  lack  of  funds  would  be 
keenly  felt  if  other  sections  of  the  state  should  also,  following  the 
Chautauqua  example,  ask  for  help.  We  suggested  to  them, 
therefore,  that  if  their  local  horticultural  society  could  raise  suffi¬ 
cient  funds  to  meet  the  expense  of  fertilizers,  travelling  and  inci¬ 
dentals,  we  should  try  to  detail  a  man  to  look  after  the  work. 
The  matter  dropped  here  ;  but  the  next  winter  we  heard  of  a 
movement  on  foot  amongst  the  Chautauqua  people  to  obtain  a 
small  state  appropriation  to  pay  for  experiment  work  in  their 
vineyards.  The  movement  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  S.  F. 
Nixon,  Assemblyman  from  Chautauqua  County,  who,  early  in 
1894,  obtained  a  grant  $16,000,  one-half  of  which  was  to  be  ex¬ 
pended  by  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  in  work  in  horticulture 
in  the  Fifth  Judicial  Department  of  the  State,  an  area  comprising 
sixteen  counties  of  western  New  York.  This  is  the  only  instance, 
so  far  as  I  know,  of  a  movement  for  experiment  station  work 
which  has  been  initiated  and  pushed  to  a  final  passage  wholly  by  a 
farming  community.  The  laws  upon  which  our  land-grant  col¬ 
leges  and  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  are  founded  were 
conceived  and  completed  almost  wholly  by  a  comparatively  small 
body  of  educators  and  experimenters,  aided  by  persons  in  the 
various  professions.  But  at  last,  the  people  themselves,  whom 
these  foundations  are  intended  to  benefit,  have  felt  the  touch  of 


126 


Bulletin  ho. 


the  new  spirit  and  the  quickened  life,  and  have  demanded  addi¬ 
tional  funds  to  be  expended  more  immediately  under  their  own 
direction.  It  must  be  gratifying  to  every  citizen  of  New  York  to 
know  that  this  State  is  the  pioneer  in  this  experiment  station  ex¬ 
tension  movement. 

The  clause  in  the  law  of  1894  which  appropriated  money  to  the 
Cornell  Experiment  Station,  is  as  follows  :  “  The  sum  of  eight 

thousand  dollars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  is  here¬ 
by  appropriated  out  of  any  moneys  in  the  treasury,  not  otherwise 
appropriated,  to  be  paid  to  the  agricultural  experiment  station 
at  Cornell  university,  for  the  purpose  of  horticultural  experi¬ 
ments,  investigations,  instruction  and  information,  in  the  fifth 
judicial  department,  pursuant  to  section  eighty-seven  of  the  agri¬ 
cultural  law.”  The  law  also  provided  that  “such  experiment 
station  may,  with  the  consent  and  approval  of  the  commissioner 
of  agriculture,  appoint  horticultural  experts  to  assist  such  experi¬ 
ment  station,  in  the  fifth  judicial  department,  in  conducting  in¬ 
vestigations  and  experiments  in  horticulture  ;  in  discovering  and 
remedying  the  disease  of  plants,  vines  and  fruit-trees  ;  in  ascer¬ 
taining  the  best  means  of  fertilizing  vineyard,  fruit  and  garden 
plantations,  and  of  making  orchards,  vineyards  and  gardens  pro¬ 
lific  ;  in  disseminating  horticultural  knowledge  by  means  of  lec¬ 
tures  or  otherwise  ;  and  in  preparing  and  printing,  for  free  distri¬ 
bution,  the  results  of  such  investigations  and  experiments,  and 
such  other  information  as  may  be  deemed  desirable  and  profitable 
in  promoting  the  horticultural  interests  of  the  state.  *  *  *  * 

All  of  such  work  by  such  experiment  station  and  by  such  experts 
shall  be  under  the  general  supervision  and  direction  of  the  com¬ 
missioner  of  agriculture.”  This  bill  became  a  law,  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernor’s  signature,  May  12,  1894.  In  the  legislature  of  1895,  Mr. 
Nixon  introduced  a  bill  to  continue  the  work,  but  increasing  the 
amount  given  to  Cornell  Experiment  Station  to  $i 6,000.  This 
second  bill  became  a  law  on  the  4th  of  April,  1895. 

Upon  taking  up  the  work  asked  for  by  the  bill,  in  the  early 
summer  of  1894,  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  placed  the  im¬ 
mediate  prosecution  of  the  enterprise  in  the  hands  of  a  chief 
“  horticultural  expert,”  in  the  language  of  the  law,  and  the  pres¬ 
ent  writer  was  elected  to  that  office,  with  the  expectation  that  most 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


127 


or  all  of  the  work  should  be  completed  during  his  summer  vaca¬ 
tion.  In  entering  upon  his  duties,  this  officer  laid  out  three  gen¬ 
eral  lines  of  work,  as  specified  in  the  law, — “conducting  investiga¬ 
tions  and  experiments,  ’  ’  ‘  ‘  disseminating  horticultural  knowledge 
by  means  of  lectures  or  otherwise,”  and  “  preparing  and  print¬ 
ing  ”  the  results  of  the  work.  In  other  words,  the  work  was  to 
be  divided  between  research,  teaching,  and  publication.  The  en¬ 
terprise  was  new  and  untried  ;  the  territory  to  be  covered  is  large, 
the  interests  varied,  and  the  demands  numerous  ;  and  the  promo¬ 
tors  of  the  bill  had  large  expectations  of  the  results.  The  respon¬ 
sibility  of  inaugurating  the  enterprise  was  keenly  felt,  for  a  mis¬ 
take  in  the  beginning  might  be  expected  to  exert  a  serious  and 
baneful  influence  upon  future  legislation  designed  to  improve  the 
conditions  of  rural  life.  The  officer  in  charge  has  been  extremely 
fortunate,  however,  in  having  the  hearty  support  of  his  colleagues, 
the  free  cooperation  of  the  commissioner  of  agriculture,  and,  above 
all.  the  kindly  and  intelligent  interest  of  scores  of  horticulturists 
in  his  territory.  It  was  conceived  that,  in  the  beginning,  a  com¬ 
paratively  small  and  well  digested  enterprise  prosecuted  by  a  few 
carefully  chosen  men  would  be  productive  of  better  results  than 
any  bold  attempt,  with  a  large  force,  to  carry  the  work  into  every 
part  of  the  fifth  judicial  department.  Inasmuch  as  the  original 
grant  was  obtained  through  the  exertions  of  the  grape-growers  of 
Chautauqua  County,  it  was  designed  to  undertake  careful  studies 
of  the  vineyard  interests  at  the  outset.  The  immediate  charge  of 
this  work  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  my  assistant,  E.  G.  Uode- 
man,  who,  to  fit  himself  more  specifically  for  certain  problems 
which  were  presenting  themselves,  went  to  Europe  (at  his  own 
expense)  and  visited  the  vineyards  of  the  Rhine,  of  Italy  and 
Southern  France.  The  entomological  inquiries  were  placed  in 
the  hands  of  M.  V.  Slingerland,  assistant  entomologist  of  the 
Experiment  Station.  Certain  lines  of  investigation  made  at 
Ithaca  were  placed  in  immediate  charge  of  Michael  Barker,  who 
was  secured  from  the  Botanic  Gardens  of  Harvard  University. 
We  also  associated  with  us  for  a  time  in  certain  field  work,  Mr. 
Harold  G.  Powell,  a  senior  in  agriculture  in  Cornell  University, 
and  one  who  has  had  much  experience  in  pomological  matters. 


128 


Bulletin  ho. 


In  1895  the  work  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  director  of  the 
station  (who  was  absent  the  previous  year)  and  the  writer,  but 
the  immediate  charge  of  it  was  given,  as  the  year  before,  to  the 
latter  officer.  Some  additional  help  was  secured  because  of  the 
larger  work  which  was  demanded  by  the  larger  appropriation  ; 
but  in  general  the  enterprise  went  forward  upon  the  same  lines  as 
in  1894. 

1.  Research  or  Experime?it. 

There  are  two  types  of  experiment  work  which  the  people 
seemed  to  require  of  us.  One  type  is  a  demand  for  more  exact 
knowledge  upon  many  rural  problems  ;  and  in  order  to  obtain 
this  knowledge  it  was  thought  best  to  prosecute  the  inquiries  at 
the  Station  at  Ithaca  where  there  are  facilities  for  scientific  work 
and  where  the  experiments  can  be  given  that  personal  attention 
which  is  absolutely  essential  to  truthful  results.  The  other  type 
of  experiment  is  a  demand  for  actual  tests  of  fertilizers,  spraying, 
methods  of  tillage,  and  the  like,  which  shall  be  made  upon  the 
farms  in  various  parts  of  the  territory,  and  where  they  may  be 
seen  by  the  farmers  themselves.  These  experiments  are  rather 
more  object  lessons  than  scientific  research  for  they  are  largely 
concerned  with  problems  which  are  already  well  understood,  and 
their  results  are  not  capable  of  such  exact  analysis  as  are  those 
which  are  obtained  from  painstaking  and  long  continued  ex¬ 
periments  at  the  home  station.  This  latter  category  comes  rather 
more  directly  under  the  head  of  teaching  than  of  experiment. 

Arrangements  were  at  once  made  to  take  up  certain  lines  of  ex¬ 
periment  at  Ithaca  which  the  fifth  judicial  department  seems  to 
need  ;  and  several  lines  of  inquiry  which  had  been  already  un¬ 
dertaken  by  the  station  and  had  been  discontinued  because  of 
lack  of  funds,  were  again  taken  up,  since  they  were  capable  of 
yielding  quicker  results,  and  with  much  less  expenditure  of 
money,  than  experiments  which  should  be  newly  started.  Some 
of  the  inquiries  which  were  completed  and  published  from  this 
state  fund  in  this  way  are  :  Apricot  Growing  in  western  New 
York ;  The  Cultivation  of  Orchards  ;  The  Grafting  of  Grapes ; 
The  Native  Dwarf  Cherries  ;  Black-Knot  of  Plums  and  Cherries, 
and  Methods  of  Treatment ;  The  Spraying  of  Orchards  ;  Winter 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  129 

Muskmelons  ;  Forcing- House  Miscellanies  (comprising  accounts 
of  heating  glass  houses,  lettuce  growing  under  glass,  celery  under 
glass,  cress,  forcing  egg-plants,  winter  peas,  bees  in  greenhouses, 
methods  of  controlling  greenhouse  pests,  treatment  of  carnation 
rust)  ;  Revised  Opinions  of  Japanese  Plums.  Several  other  lines 
of  experiment,  touching  the  horticultural  interests  of  our  terri¬ 
tory  and  which  had  already  been  carried  to  a  certain  point  by 
our  own  funds,  are  now  going  forward  at  the  home  station,  and 
the  results  may  be  expected  in  bulletin  form,  as  they  mature. 

Certain  wholly  new  investigations  have  also  been  undertaken 
at  the  home  station  for  the  benefit  of  western  New  York,  most  of 
which,  however,  are  not  yet  ready  for  publication.  Certain  of 
these  studies  have  been  prosecuted  in  part  upon  the  farms  in 
western  New  York,  particularly  those  relating  to  insects.  The 
bulletins  of  this  type  which  have  already  been  published  are  as 
follows  :  A  Plum  Scale  in  western  New  York  ;  The  Climbing 
Cutworms  in  western  New  York  ;  The  Cigar- Case- Bearer  in 
western  New  York  ;  The  Dwarf  Eima  Beans  ;  Recent  Chrysan¬ 
themums  ;  The  China  Asters,  with  Remarks  upon  Flower  Beds  ; 
The  Spraying  of  Trees,  with  Remarks  upon  the  Canker-Worm  ; 
Soil  Depletion  in  Respect  to  the  Care  of  Fruit  Trees.  A  half 
dozen  other  investigations  of  this  type  are  already  completed  and 
awaiting  publication. 

Another  type  of  research  work  which  we  have  undertaken 
under  the  auspices  of  this  bill  is  the  investigation  of  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  certain  horticultural  interests  in  western  New  York.  In 
the  interest  of  these  particular  inquiries,  we  have  travelled  no  less 
than  25,000  miles  in  western  New  York  and  have  visited  and  ex¬ 
amined  many  hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  of  plantations.  We 
have  attempted  in  these  investigations  to  learn  the  actual  state  of 
the  industries  and  to  suggest  means  for  their  improvement.  They 
are  really  the  beginning  of  a  horticultural  survey  which  can  be 
much  extended  with  great  profit.  Some  of  these  inquiries  have 
already  matured,  and  the  results  are  published  in  the  following 
bulletins  :  Hints  on  the  Planting  of  Orchards  ;  The  Peach  In¬ 
dustry  in  western  New  York  ;  Peach  Yellows  ;  Some  Grape 
Troubles  in  western  New  York  (with  a  particular  account  of  the 
“rattling”  of  grapes  in  Chautauqua  County)  ;  Varieties  and 


130 


Bulletin  i  io. 


Eeaf-Blight  of  the  Strawberry  ;  The  Quince  in  western  New 
York  ;  The  Recent  Apple  Failures  of  western  New  York  ;  Cher¬ 
ries  ;  Blackberries  ;  Evaporated  Raspberries  in  western  New 
York  ;  General  Observations  Respecting  the  Care  of  Fruit 
Trees ;  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt. 
Various  other  investigations  of  this  type  have  been  completed, 
for  the  time,  and  the  reports  may  be  expected  soon.  Some  of 
these  are  currant  growing,  gooseberries,  the  Japanese  pears,  and 
dwarf  apples.  Other  inquiries  which  have  been  under  way  for 
the  past  two  seasons  still  need  one  or  two  more  years’  work  before 
they  are  ready  for  publication.  Some  of  the  most  promising  of 
these  are  the  bean  industry,  dwarf  pears,  standard  pears,  plums, 
strawberries,  raspberries.  Many  other  horticultural  industries, 
some  of  which  are  sadly  in  need  of  investigation,  we  have  not 
yet  been  able  to  touch.  Some  of  the  most  pressing  of  these  un¬ 
touched  problems  are  connected  with  the  growing  of  various  vege¬ 
table  crops  for  the  canning  trade,  some  of  the  forcing-house  in¬ 
dustries,  and  the  nursery  business. 

The  experiments  which  are  now  in  progress  in  western  New 
York  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  fertilizing  of  fruit  lands. 
There  are,  for  example,  experiments  under  way  in  fertilizing  peach 
lands  at  Youngstown,  Niagara  County,  and  near  Morton,  Monroe 
County  ;  in  fertilizing  apple  orchards  near  Eockport,  and  in 
Wayne  County ;  in  fertilizing  and  managing  nursery  lands  at 
Dansville  ;  and  several  tests  upon  grape  lands  in  Chautauqua 
County.  Aside  from  these  definite  experiments,  we  are  keeping 
close  run  of  the  experiments  which  are  making  by  various  farm¬ 
ers  in  our  territory. 

At  the  present  time,  every  intelligent  farmer  is  an  experimenter. 
We  are  in  a  transition  period  as  respects  the  methods  and  objects 
of  farming.  But  the  greater  part  of  all  this  experiment  is  lost 
unless  it  is  carefully  studied  and  collated  by  a  specialist,  and  the 
summary  results  of  it  given  to  the  world.  Much  of  this  cumula¬ 
tive  body  of  experience  of  the  best  farmers  is  capable  of  yielding 
better  results  than  similar  work  which  might  be  undertaken  at 
an  experiment  station.  In  fact,  there  are  many  lines  of  investi¬ 
gation  touching  rural  economy,  or  farm  management,  which  can 
be  undertaken  in  no  other  way  than  by  a  study  of  actual  farm 
conditions.  An  experiment  station,  which  is  necessarily  consti- 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  13 1 

tuted  for  scientific  research,  cannot  touch  many  of  the  most  vital 
problems  of  farming.  The  only  ideal  station  is  that  which  adds 
the  farm  of  every  one  of  its  constituents  to  its  own  resources. 

2.  Teaching . 

One  of  the  distinctive  marks  of  the  last  decade,  in  educational 
lines,  is  the  extension  of  university  teaching  to  the  people.  Prob¬ 
ably  no  movement  of  the  latter  part  of  the  century  is  destined  to 
exert  a  greater  influence  upon  the  form  of  our  institutions  and 
civilization,  than  this  attempt  to  leaven  the  entire  lump  of  citi¬ 
zenship  with  the  inspiration  of  higher  motives.  The  agricultural 
experiment  station  movement  is  itself  a  part  of  this  general  desire 
to  carry  the  new  life  to  every  person,  whether  college-bred  or  not. 
But  this  movement,  beneficent  as  it  is,  still  lacks  some  of  the 
means  of  making  itself  felt.  It  must  have  a  closer  vital  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  people.  The  people  must  be  made  to  hear,  even 
though  they  desire  to  be  deaf.  Good  citizenship  has  a  right  to 
demand  that  every  person  live  up  to  the  full  stature  of  his  oppor¬ 
tunities.  The  establishment  of  the  experiment  stations  upon  a 
federal  grant  ensures  stability  and  removes  them  beyond  the  reach 
of  petty  and  local  jealousies  and  criticisms  ;  but  the  addition  of  a 
state  grant  to  the  federal  grant,  brings  them  home  to  the  people 
and  awakens  a  personal  interest  in  them  in  the  rural  communities 
which  can  be  obtained  in  no  other  way.  If  this  state  aid 
asks  for  extension  teaching,  still  more  will  be  gained  towards 
spreading  the  influence  of  the  stations.  The  results  of  the  experi¬ 
ment  station  work  must  be  carried  to  every  farmer’s  door  ;  and  if 
he  shuts  the  door,  they  must  be  thrown  in  at  the  window. 

The  greatest  good  to  be  derived  from  this  experiment  station 
extension  bill  was  conceived,  therefore,  to  be  teaching.  So  meet¬ 
ings  have  been  held  and  attended — nearly  fifty  of  them  in  the  last 
two  years, — in  which  something  has  been  said  of  the  new  teach¬ 
ing  of  science  and  the  new  demands  of  the  times.  This  teaching 
has  not  only  been  cordially  met  by  the  rural  communities,  but  it 
has  been  eagerly  sought  by  them.  The  rural  population  is  ready 
for  instruction,  and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  those  who  receive  it 
endeavor  to  profit  by  it.  The  derision  of  “book  farming,”  of 


i32 


Bulletin  no. 


which  we  have  heard  so  much,  has  all  gone,  because  the  teaching 
is  now  worth  being  received.  In  the  light  of  our  present  knowl¬ 
edge,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  most  of  the  agricultural  teaching  of  a 
generation  ago  was  wholly  unsuited  to  the  conditions  which  it 
desired  to  reach,  and  it  had,  for  the  most  part,  a  most  meager 
foundation  both  of  fact  and  of  inspiration.  If  “  book-farming  ’  ’ 
came  to  be  a  by-word,  it  was  because  the  epithet  was  deserved. 
It  is  true  that  the  agricultural  industries  are  the  most  difficult  of 
all  industries  to  reach  with  the  educational  motive,  but  this  is  be¬ 
cause  of  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  subjects  and  not  because 
farmers  are  unwilling  to  learn. 

The  truth  of  these  remarks  is  attested  by  the  large  attendance 
at  many  of  the  meetings  which  have  been  held  under  the  auspices 
of  the  bill,  by  the  eager  questioning  of  the  attendants,  and  by  the 
enormous  correspondence  which  pours  into  the  Experiment  Sta¬ 
tion  offices.  An  instance  of  the  awakening  interest  may  be  cited. 
The  writer  met  about  twenty  fruit  growers  at  Hotel  Richmond, 
Batavia,  in  early  spring.  The  work  of  the  year  in  Genesee 
County  was  talked  over.  On  the  14th  day  of  May,  an  orchard 
meeting  was  held  at  South  Bethany  at  which  300  to  400  people 
were  present  ;  on  the  18th  of  July,  at  a  potato-spraying  contest  at 
Stafford,  500  or  600  people  were  in  attendance  ;  on  the  2 2d  of 
August,  at  Nelson  Bogue’s,  near  Batavia,  the  turnout  was  esti¬ 
mated  at  1,500  to  2,000.  Yet,  large  as  this  number  is,  the  writer 
has  addressed  a  western  New  York  farmer’s  audience  of  twice 
this  size  during  the  past  season  !  Surely,  the  time  is  ripe  for 
sowing  the  seed  of  the  new  agriculture  ! 

Some  of  the  teaching  under  the  auspices  of  this  bill  has  been 
done  by  sending  a  man  to  attend  horticultural  and  grange  meet¬ 
ings,  when  such  a  favor  was  requested.  East  spring  we  inaugu¬ 
rated  a  series  of  “  spring  rallies,”  which  were  brisk,  active  meet¬ 
ings  of  one  or  two  days’  duration.  For  the  most  part,  two  or 
three  persons  took  part  in  these  meetings, — the  officer  in  charge 
of  the  work,  Mr.  Eodeman  and  Mr.  Slingerland.  It  was  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  these  meetings  to  send  the  farmer  into  the  season’s  work 
with  such  an  initial  velocity  that  he  could  not  stop  himself  before 
the  harvest  time.  There  were  plain  direct  talks  about  the  philo- 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  133 

sophy  of  tillage,  fertilizing  the  land,  conservation  of  moisture,  and 
the  like,  instructions  about  spraying,  and  sometimes  talks  about 
insects.  An  orchard  was  generally  sprayed  for  the  purpose  of  ex¬ 
plaining  the  operation.  These  meetings  were  uniformly  well  at¬ 
tended.  Some  of  the  best  of  them  were  held  at  Morton,  Clyde, 
Dundee  and  Youngstown. 

The  most  exact  work  which  has  been  done  in  extension  teach¬ 
ing,  however,  is  in  the  holding  of  certain  meetings  which  we  have 
called  “  horticultural  schools.”  These  are  designed  to  carry  the 
most  useful  features  of  university  extension  methods  to  the  aid 
of  the  rural  communities.  The  instruction  is  designed  to  be 
somewhat  fundamental  in  character,  of  such  a  nature  that  it  in¬ 
terests  the  listener  in  the  subject  because  of  its  intellectual  relish, 
and  thereby  sets  him  to  thinking.  If  the  farmer  thinks  correctly, 
he  then  does  correctly.  In  the  treatment  of  insects,  for  example, 
the  listener  is  asked  to  consider  the  anatomy,  physiology,  natural 
history,  and  habits  of  insects,  and  little  is  said  about  the  means 
of  destroying  noxious  kinds.  He  can  read  current  literatute  the 
more  intelligently  and  with  keener  interest,  for  having  even  a  lit¬ 
tle  of  the  fundamental  knowledge,  and  he  is  very  likely  to  carry 
the  new  habit  of  thought  directly  into  the  field  with  him. 
Another  feature  of  these  schools  which  has  met  with  much  favor 
is  the  training  of  the  powers  of  observation  by  placing  specimens 
of  twigs,  fruits,  flowers,  or  other  objects,  in  the  hands  of  the  par¬ 
ticipants,  asking  that  they  explain  what  they  see.  It  is  true  that 
most  persons  do  not  see  what  they  look  at,  and  still  fewer  persons 
draw  correct  conclusions  from  what  they  see.  It  has  been  our 
habit  to  enroll  those  persons  who  signify  a  desire  to  attend  all  the 
sessions  of  a  school,  in  order  that  they  may  feel  themselves  to  be 
intimately  identified  with  the  movement  ;  and  the  roll  is  generally 
called  at  the  opening  of  each  session.  An  average  attendance  of 
forty  or  fifty  persons  is  sufficient  for  a  successful  school.  he 
first  school  was  held  at  Fredonia  in  the  holidays  of  1894.  The 
enrollment  was  about  60  ;  but  the  effect  of  the  teaching  was  felt 
throughout  a  wide  constituency.  It  is  generally  only  the  most 
influential  persons  who  attend  such  schools,  and  they  spread  the 
instruction  far  and  wide  ;  and  the  teaching  is  perhaps  all  the  bet- 


I34 


Bulletin  ho. 


ter  for  being  second-hand  and  for  being  worked  over  into  more 
assimilable  shape.  The  high-water  mark  in  these  schools  was 
reached  at  Jamestown,  where  over  ioo  persons  were  enrolled,  and 
where  the  interest  was  at  high  tension  from  start  till  finish.  Other 
persons  than  those  enrolled  attend  the  exercises,  and  the  evening 
lectures  draw  a  larger  audience. 

The  instructors  in  these  schools  were  mostly  teachers  in  Cornell 
University,  and  each  one  provided  printed  synopses  of  his  lectures 
for  the  use  of  his  hearers.  At  the  first  Fredonia  school,  the  last 
day,  by  request  of  the  promoters  in  that  vicinity,  was  given  over 
to  local  speakers  upon  ‘  ‘  practical  ’  ’  questions  ;  but  we  were  re¬ 
quested,  in  arranging  the  program  for  the  second  school,  to  omit 
all  local  talent  in  order  that  the  exercises  might  ‘  ‘  not  fall  below 
the  university  standard.”  Five  of  these  schools  have  been  held. 
The  character  of  them  can  best  be  understood  by  a  display  of  the 
announcements  and  the  synopses  : 


CONSPECTUS 

OF  A 

SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE 

TO  BE  HELD  AT 

FREDONIA,  CHAUTAUQUA  CO.,  N.  Y., 

Dec.  26-29,  1894 
Under  the  auspices  of 

The  Experiment  Station  Extension,  or  Nixon,  Bill. 

Conducted  by  L.  H.  Bailey,  and 

A  committee  of  Chautauqua  Horticulturists,  consisting  of  John 
W.  Spencer,  S.  S-  Crissey,  I.  A.  Wilcox,  G.  Shoenfeld, 

U.  E.  Dodge,  E.  K.  Hough,  F.  W.  Howard,  L.  Roesch, 

F.  Southwick,  G.  Jaarda,  J.  C.  Thies,  S.  G.  Bartlett. 

Day  sessions  will  be  held  in  Temple  of  Honor  Hall  and  evening 

sessions  in  the  large  Normal  Hall. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


i35 


2  P.  M. 

1. 

2. 

3- 


7  P.  M. 

4- 


9.30  A.  M. 

5- 

6. 


2  P.  M. 

7- 

8. 


7  P.  M. 

9- 


9.3O  A.  M. 

10. 

11. 


2  P.  M. 


12. 

13. 


Wednesday,  Dec.  26. 

Announcements. 

Observation  upon  Twigs . 

How  Plants  Live  and  Grow.  With  demonstrations 
with  the  microscope.  W.  W.  Rowlee,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Botany  in  Cornell  University. 

An  Analysis  of  Landscapes,  with  stereopticon  views. 
L-  H.  Bailey. 

Thursday,  Dec.  27. 

Observations  upon  Fruit  Buds. 

The  Nursery.  Discussion  upon  the  propagation  of 
plants,  illustrated  with  the  operations  and  nursery- 
grown  specimens.  Nelson  C.  Smith,  Geneva. 

Observation  upon  Seeds. 

A  Brief  of  the  Evolution  of  Plants.  Origination 
of  varieties.  Philosophy  of  domestication  and 
pruning.  E.  H.  Bailey. 

The  Geological  History  of  Soils.  With  stereopticon 
views.  R.  S.  Tarr,  Assistant  Professor  of  Dy¬ 
namic  Geology  and  Physical  Geography  in  Cor¬ 
nell  University. 

Friday,  Dec.  28. 

% 

Observation  upon  Leaves. 

Chemistry  of  the  Grape  and  of  Soils.  G.  C.  Cald¬ 
well,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Cornell  Univer¬ 
sity. 

Observation  upon  Flowers. 

Theory  of  Tillage  and  Productivity  of  Land.  I.  P. 
Roberts,  Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
Cornell  University. 


136 


Bulletin  no. 


7  P.  M. 

14.  What  are  Fungi  f  Considered  with  special  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  grape,  with  stereopticon  views.  E.  G. 
Lodeman,  Instructor  in  Horticulture  in  Cornell 
University. 


9.30  A.  M. 


i5- 

16. 


2  P.  M- 


I7- 

18. 

19. 

20. 


Saturday,  Dec.  29. 

Observation  upon  Fruits. 

Commercial  Grape  CulUcre  in  Chautauqua  County. 
Considered  in  various  aspects,  by  S.  S.  Crissey, 
Fredonia;  G.  Schcenfeld,  Westfield;  J.  A. 
Tennant,  Ripley. 

Observation  upon  The  Apple. 

Continuation  of  No.  16. 

General  Question  Box. 

Final  exercises. 


This  is  probably  the  first  school  of  its  kind  devoted  to  horticulture  in  this 
country.  With  no  precedents  to  guide  us,  we  shall  probably  make  mistakes, 
but  we  shall  all  do  our  best.  It  will  always  be  a  pleasant  memory  that  we 
have  participated  in  a  pioneer  movement 

The  day  exercises  will  aim  at  specific  instruction  in  particular  subjects. 
The  evening  exercises  will  be  popular  illustrated  lectures. 

Everyone  is  invited  to  attend  the  various  exercises.  Persons  have  the 
privilege  of  enrolling  themselves  as  students  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
personal  aid  upon  the  points  under  discussion.  At  the  close  of  each  day’s 
exercise,  the  students  will  be  questioned  upon  the  subject.  This  questioning 
is  not  pursued  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  student’s  knowledge  of 
the  exercise,  but  to  elucidate  the  subject  under  discussion.  During  this  ex¬ 
ercise,  also,  the  student  has  the  privilege  of  freely  asking  questions  upon  the 
topic  under  consideration.  It  is  expected  that  the  instructors  will  not  be 
interrupted  with  questions  during  the  course  of  the  exercise. 

Each  day  session  will  be  opened  with  a  lesson  upon  observation.  Students 
will  be  given  specimens,  as  indicated  in  the  program,  and  ten  minutes  will 
be  allowed  for  examination  of  tfiem.  The  students  will  then  be  questioned 
as  to  what  they  have  seen. 

Students  should  provide  themselves  with  note-book  and  pencil. 

Roll  will  be  called  immediately  upon  the  hour  set  for  meeting. 

Printed  synopses  of  all  the  day  lectures  will  be  distributed  to  students. 

While  most  of  the  instruction  deals  with  fundamental  principles,  special 
applications  will  be  made  to  the  grape  whenever  possible. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


J37 


Roster  of  the  first  Fredonia  School : 


J.  R.  Adams,  Fredonia. 

L.  S.  Allnott,  Fredonia. 

S.  G.  Bartlett,  Fredonia. 

F.  A.  Beckwith,  Fredonia. 

A.  J.  Blodgett,  Fredonia. 

Newel  Cheney,  Poland  Center. 

Mrs.  Newel  Cheney,  Poland  Center. 
H.  B.  Clothier,  Forestville. 

T.  W.  Clute,  Fredonia. 

E.  L.  Colvin,  Fredonia. 

L.  E.  Cowden,  Fredonia. 

S.  S.  Crissey,  Fredonia. 

U.  E-  Dodge,  Fredonia. 

M.  M.  Fenner,  Fredonia. 

G.  H.  Green,  Fredonia. 

E.  A.  Guest,  Fredonia. 

G.  C.  Guthrie,  Fredonia. 

Sam’l  Hall,  Fredonia. 

Geo.  T.  Hammond,  Fredonia. 

F.  D.  Hardenburg,  Brocton. 

W.  W.  Harris,  Brocton. 

Mrs.  W.  W.  Harris,  Brocton. 

E  K.  Hough,  Fredonia. 

F  W.  Howard,  Fredonia. 

G.  Jaarda,  Fredonia. 

F  M.  Kidder,  Fredonia. 

C.  I.  Mason,  Fredonia. 

A.  Matthews,  Portland. 

J.  A.  Miller,  Fredonia. 


R.  E.  Morris,  Brocton. 

A.  F.  Newton,  Fredonia. 

O.  Ostrander,  Fredonia. 

J.  N.  Palmer,  Fredonia. 

Dr.  William  Parks,  Fredonia. 

J.  J.  Parker,  Fredonia. 

J.  M.  Pettit,  Fredonia. 

Dr.  A.  P.  Phillips,  Fredonia. 

J.  A.  Powers,  Portland. 

Dr.  N.  Y.  Richmond,  Fredonia. 

L.  Roesch,  Fredonia. 

P.  L.  Saxon,  Fredonia. 

G.  Schoenfeld,  Westfield. 

J.  W.  Skinner,  Laona. 

C.  L.  Snow,  Forestville. 

F.  M.  Southwick,  Dunkirk. 

J.  W.  Spencer,  Westfield. 

A.  M.  Tennant,  Westfield. 

J.  A.  Tennant,  Ripley. 

Carl  Thatcher,  Fredonia. 

D.  M.  Thayer,  Fredonia. 

Mrs.  D.  M.  Thayer,  Fredonia. 
John  C.  Theis,  Fredonia. 

M.  J.  Tooke,  Sheridan. 

E.  I.  Wilcox,  Fredonia. 

I.  A.  Wilcox,  Portland. 

C.  W.  Wilson,  Fredonia. 

E.  P.  Wilson,  Fredonia. 

H.  M.  Wolbur,  Fredonia. 

- 58  Students. 


CONSPECTUS 


OF  A 

SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE 

TO  BE  HELD  AT 


YOUNGSTOWN,  NIAGARA  CO.,  N.  Y., 
Friday  and  Saturday,  August  16  and  17,  1895, 
Under  the  auspices  of  the 

Experiment  Station  Extension,  or  Nixon,  Bill. 


Bulletin  ho. 


138 


1. 

2. 
3- 


4- 

5- 
6. 


7. 

8. 


9- 

10. 

11. 


12. 

13- 

14. 


Friday,  August  16. 

Morning  Session — 10  A.  m. 

Music. 

Observations  o  Buds  and  Branches. 

The  Soil—  Its  resources  and  management. 

I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  of  Agriculture , 

Cornell  University. 

Afternoon  Session — 2  p.  m. 

Music. 

Observations  on  the  Peach. 

The  Orchard. — Management  of  land  and  trees. 

L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  of  Horticulture , 

Cornell  University . 

Evening  Session — 7:30. 

Music. 

The  Science  of  the  Weather. — Illustrated  by  charts  and 
diagrams. 

R.  S.  Tarr, 

Professor  of  Geology  and  Physiography , 

Cornell  University . 

Saturday,  August  17. 

Morning  Session — 10  a.  m. 

Music. 

Observations  on  the  Apple. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Peach. — Illustrated  by  actual 
specimens. 

M.  V.  Slingerland, 

Entomologist  in  the  Experiment  Station , 

Cornell  University . 

Afternoon  Session — 2  p.  m. 

Music. 

Observations  on  the  Apple-scab. 

The  Spraying  of  Orchards. — Lessons  of  the  year. 

E.  G.  Lodeman, 

Assistant  Horticulturist , 

Cornell  University , 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


i39 


The  meeting  will  be  held  in  the  Opera  House. 

The  school  is  free  to  everybody,  and  every  one  interested  in  horticulture 
is  invited  to  attend. 

Come  with  note-book  and  pencil. 

Be  on  hand  promptly  at  the  opening  hour.  The  Observations  will  be  the 
most  interesting  exercises. 

Bring  in  specimens  of  fruits,  flowers,  insects,  and  whatever  else  interests 
you. 

Come  with  the  determination  to  learn  all  you  can  about  the  subjects  under 
discussion. 


A  SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE 


WILL  BE  HELD  IN 


UNION  GRANGE  HALL,  JAMESTOWN,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  31,  Nov.  1  and  2,  1895, 

Under  the  auspices  of 

The  Nixon,  or  Experiment  Station  Extension  Bill. 


Conducted  by  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cornell  University. 


Free  to  All. 

Thursday,  Oct.  31. 

2:00  p.  m.  Lesson  in  observation  upon  Bark. 

Outline  of  the  Nutrition  of  Plants.  With  examples. 
E.  J.  Durand,  Instructor  in  Botany,  Cornell 
University. 

7:30.  p.  m.  Address  on  Evolution  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 

L.  H.  Bailey,  Professor  of  Horticulture,  Cornell 
University. 


Friday,  Nov.  i. 

10:00  p.  m.  Observation  on  bisects. 

Insects  and  Insect  Enemies.  M.  V.  Slingerland, 
Entomologist  in  the  Experiment  Station,  Cornell 
University. 

2:00  p.  m.  Observation  on  Flowers. 

Plows  and  Plowing.  I.  P.  Roberts,  Director  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University. 

7:30  p.  m.  The  Geological  History  of  Jamestown  Region. 

With  lantern  slides.  R.  S.  Tarr,  Professor  of 
Geology,  Cornell  University. 


140 


Bulletin  iio. 


Saturday,  Nov.  2. 


10:00  A.  m.  Observation  on  the  Apple. 

How  can  the  Farmer  tell  what  Fertilizer  his  Soil 
Needs  ?  G.  C.  Caldwell,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Cornell  University. 

2:00  p.  m.  Observation  on  Fungi. 

Fungi  and  Fungous  Enemies.  E.  G.  Eodeman,  In¬ 
structor  in  Horticulture,  Cornell  University. 


Let  everyone  who  is  interested  in  agriculture  and  horticulture  come  and 
take  part  in  the  sessions. 

Bring  in  all  specimens  of  plants,  insects,  fruits,  and  the  like,  concerning 
which  you  wish  to  ask  questions. 

Come  with  note-book  and  pencil. 

Read  up  on  the  subject  under  discussion  before  you  come.  You  will  then 
get  more  out  of  the  instruction. 

Be  on  hand  promptly  at  the  opening  hour. 

This  is  an  opportunity  for  everyone  to  renew  his  school  days. 

Roster  of  the  Jamestown. School: 


R.  Adams,  Jamestown. 

James  S.  Aiken,  Fluvanna. 

Mrs.  Geo.  L.  Ames,  Gerry. 

Miss  Nettie  J.  Armstrong,  Jamestown 
B.  B.  Bissell,  Gerry. 

Mrs.  R.  M.  Bissell,  Gerry. 

Flint  Blanchard,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  Flint  Blanchard,  Jamestown. 

L.  G.  Brainard,  Ellington. 

Mrs.  Mary  Brainard,  Ellington. 

Miss  Ellen  A.  Breed,  Jamestown. 
Simeon  Brownell,  Dewittville. 

Mrs.  Simeon  Brownell,  Dewittville. 
W.  O.  Brownell,  Bemus  Point. 

Miss  Callahane,  Jamestown. 

A.  M.  Cheney,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  A.  M.  Cheney,  Jamestown. 

Asa  Cheney,  Bemus  Point. 

J.  Cheney,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  J.  Cheney,  Jamestown 
Mrs.  Kate  Cheney,  Bemus  Point. 
Lewis  Cheney,  Kiantone. 

Miss  Martha  Cheney,  Bemus  Point. 
Newel  Cheney,  Poland  Center. 

Mrs.  Newel  Cheney,  Poland  Center. 


Amos  Colburn,  Ellington. 

Miss  Minnie  Comstock,  Jamestown. 
F.  A.  Crandall,  Falconer. 

J.  W.  Creal,  Kiantone. 

Thos.  W.  Crouch,  Jamestown. 

Chas.  M.  Dow,  Jamestown. 

Edwin  Durand,  Frewsburg. 

F.  E.  Durand,  Frewsburg. 

Mrs.  F.  E.  Durand,  Frewsburg. 

Mrs.  O.  J.  Felton,  Falconer. 

C.  C.  Fisher,  Stow. 

F.  A.  Fitch,  Randolph. 

L.  D.  Gale,  Stedman. 

Miss  Louise  E.  Geer,  Jamestown. 

C.  D.  Gifford,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  C.  D.  Gifford,  Jamestown. 

T.  H.  Gifford,  Jamestown. 

W.  C.  Gifford,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  W.  C.  Gifford,  Jamestown. 

G.  A.  Gladden,  Napoli. 

Mrs.  G.  A.  Gladden,  Napoli. 

A.  L.  Gleason,  Open  Meadow. 

Miss  Gertrude  Greene,  Ashville. 
Miss  Ophelia  Griffith,  Jamestown. 
Mrs.  Dan’l  Griswold,  Jamestown. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


141 


Miss  Bertha  Gron,  Jamestown. 

E.  A.  Harvey,  Fluvanna. 

Mrs.  E.  A.  Harvey,  Fluvanna. 

W.  Haskin,  Ellery. 

A.  Hazeltine,  Jamestown. 

R.  T.  Hazelton,  Frewsburg. 

Jared  Hewes,  Stedman. 

W.  L •  Hyde,  Jamestown. 

Miss  Lottie  C.  Landon,  Jamestown. 
Miss  E.  E.  Leet,  Jamestown. 

G.  F.  Leet,  Point  Chautauqua. 

C.  H.  Love,  Frewsburg. 

N.  D.  Lewis,  Jamestown. 

R.  R.  Lord,  St.  Clairville. 

S.  A.  Markham,  Ellington. 

Mrs.  S.  A.  Markham,  Ellington. 

O.  D.  Mitchell,  Busti. 

Mrs.  Ann  A.  Mills,  Jamestown. 

S.  M.  Morley,  Stow. 

Mrs.  L.  Morgan,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  Florence  Morton,  Stow. 

W.  Palmeter,  Jamestown. 

V.  E.  Peckham,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  V.  E.  Peckham,  Jamestown. 
Miss  Clara  Phillips,  Bemus  Point. 
Geo.  A.  Phillips,  Bemus  Point. 
Mrs.  J.  Phillips,  Bemus  Point. 

Mrs.  Mary  Phillips,  Jamestown. 
Mrs.  L.  J.  Pierce,  Jamestown. 

H.  Pike,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  Josephine  Price,  Jamestown. 
David  Rider,  Levant. 


Mrs.  David  Rider,  Levant. 

Mrs.  L.  S.  Robertson,  Ashville. 

D.  F.  Rose,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  D.  F.  Rose,  Jamestown. 

E.  H.  Sample,  Kennedy. 

S.  J.  Sample,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  S.  J.  Sample,  Jamestown. 

W.  H.  Seymour,  Kennedy. 

Miss  Laura  F.  Sheldon,  Jamestown. 

D.  Sherman,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  D.  Sherman,  Jamestown. 

S.  O.  Smith,  Busti. 

Mrs.  L.  T.  Stafford,  Kennedy. 

W.  J.  Staples,  Frewsburg. 

Mrs.  S.  M.  Stewart,  Ashville. 

E.  A.  Stone,  Poland. 

Mrs.  E.  A.  Stone,  Poland. 

C.  N.  Taylor,  Frewsburg. 

Lawrence  Taylor,  Frewsburg. 

F.  D.  Thompson,  Boomertown. 
Mrs.  N.  R.  Thompson,  Jamestown. 

S.  W.  Thompson,  Jamestown. 
Sam’l  Townsend,  Frewsburg. 

A.  A.  VanVleck,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  A.  A.  VanVleck,  Jamestown. 
M.  B.  Wample,  Jamestown. 

Mrs.  M.  B.  Wample,  Jamestown. 

T.  H.  Welch,  Stow. 

R.  I.  Weld,  Sugar  Grove,  Pa. 

Mrs.  Mary  Wheeler,  Ellington. 

J.  W.  Whitford,  Stow. 

- 1 13  Students. 


A  SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE 

WILL  BE  HELD  IN 

THE  COURT  HOUSE,  LOCKPORT,  N.  Y., 

Nov.  29  and  30,  1895, 

Under  the  auspices  of 

The  Nixon,  or  Experiment  Station  Extension,  Bill- 

Conducted  by  L-  H.  Bailey,  Cornell  University. 

Free  to  All. 


142 


Bulletin  ho 


Friday,  Nov.  29. 

2:00  p.  m.  Lesson  in  observation  upon  Seeds. 

The  Soil.  What  there  is  in  it,  and  how  to  get  it 
out.  I.  P.  Roberts,  Director  of  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  Cornell  University. 

7:30  p.  m.  Address,  Landscape  Art.  With  lantern  views. 

L.  H.  Bailey,  Professor  of  Horticulture,  Cornell 
University. 


Saturday,  Nov.  30. 

9:30  A.  m.  Observation  on  bisects. 

Insects  and  Insect  Enemies,  with  specimens  and 
models.  M.  V.  Slingerland,  Entomologist  in  the 
Experiment  Station,  Cornell  University. 

11:00  A.  m.  Black-Knot  and  Potato  Blight,  with  drawings  and 

specimens.  E.  G.  Lodeman,  Instructor  in  Horti¬ 
culture,  Cornell  University. 

2:00  p.  m.  A  session  with  the  growers.  “  How  Science-teach¬ 
ing  looks  to  a  farmer.”  John  W.  Spencer,  West- 
field,  Chautauqua  Co. 

“Is  Orchard  Culture  going  to  Supplant  Mixed  Hus¬ 
bandry?”  Albert  Wood,  Carlton,  Orleans  Co. 

Roster  of  the  Lockport  School: 


Asa  Baldwin,  Lockport. 

E.  M.  Baldwin,  Lockport. 

R.  A.  Barnes,  Lockport. 

George  Bebe,  Lockport. 

Lewis  T.  Bell,  Lockport. 

F.  M.  Bradley,  Lake  Road. 

Jones  W.  Brown,  Lockport. 

H.  H.  Bugbee,  Gasport. 

Wm.  Bugbee,  Gasport. 

Ellis  S.  Button,  Gasport. 

Fernando  Capen,  Warren’s  Corners. 
Merritt  H.  Carl,  Lockport. 

W.  B.  Cook,  Lockport. 

E.  E-  Crosby,  Lockport. 

I.  N.  Crosby,  Pekin. 

J.  R.  Crosby,  Lockport. 

F.  Day,  Hartland. 

L.  S.  DeWolf,  Gasport. 

Ralph  G.  DeWolf,  Gasport. 


Wm.  L.  Dysinger,  Lockport. 

A.  G.  Eighme,  Lockport, 

A.  Flanders,  Lockport. 

E.  G.  Gafla,  North  Ridge. 

Almon  Gallup,  Lockport. 

C.  Gaylord,  Lockport. 

T.  Greiner,  La  Salle. 

W.  T.  Hall,  Lockport. 

T.  J.  Hastings,  Ridge  Road. 

Geo.  W.  Haynes,  Lqckport. 

Geo.  W.  Hildreth,  Lockport. 

T.  Hough,  Lockport. 

Orman  S.  Jaques,  Wright’s  Corners. 
W.  T.  Mann,  Barker. 

G.  E.  Manning,  Ransomville. 

Dan’l  McCarthy,  Lockport. 

Chas.  H.  Modem,  Newfane. 

A.  Merlen,  Gasport. 

F.  R.  Montgomery,  Johnson’s  Creek. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


T43 


Franklin  Moore,  Ransomville. 
Okas.  Oeds,  Lockport. 

Wm.  H.  Outwater,  Olcott. 

M.  B.  Reed,  Medina. 

Wm.  Seism,  Lockport. 

W.  E.  Shafer,  Lockport. 

E.  Ashley  Smith,  Lockport. 
John  W.  Spencer,  Westfield. 
H.  L.  Taylor,  Cambria. 

E.  Terry,  Ridge  Road. 

Geo.  P.  Tower,  Youngstown. 
H.  B.  Tower,  Ransomville. 


Mrs.  H.  B.  Tower,  Ransomville. 
Luke  Tower,  Youngstown. 

B.  Treadwell,  Lockport. 

A.  D.  Tripp,  North  Ridgeway. 

A.  E.  Van  Dusen,  Hickory  Corners. 
John  Walker,  Ridge  Road. 

A.  J.  Wheeler,  Cheboygan,  Mich. 

E.  V.  Wheeler,  Lockport. 

P.  B.  Wilson,  Kuckville. 

Albert  Wood,  Carlton. 

Miss  E.  A.  Wood,  Pekin. 

J.  S.  Woodward,  Lockport. 

- 6 2  Students. 


PROGRAM 

OF  A 

SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE, 

TO  BE  HELD  AT 

FREDONIA,  CHAUTAUQUA  CO-,  N.  Y., 

December  30  and  31,  1895,  and  Jan.  1  and  2,  1896. 

Under  the  auspices  of 

The  Experiment  Station  Extension,  or  Nixon,  Bill. 

Conducted  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Day  Sessions  will  be  held  in  Temple  of  Honor  Hall  and  Even¬ 
ing  Sessions  in  the  Large  Normal  Hall. 


2  P.  M. 

1 . 

2. 


7:30  p.  M. 

3- 


Monday,  December  30. 

Observation  upon  Pollen. 

Pollen  :  What  it  is  and  what  it  does.  By  E.  J. 
Durand,  Instructor  in  Botany  in  Cornell  Univer¬ 
sity.  Illustrated  by  charts,  and  pollen  under  the 
microscope. 

Address  :  How  Plants  Obtain  their  Nitrogen.  By 
George  F.  Atkinson,  Professor  of  Cryptogamic 
Botany,  Cornell  University.  With  lantern  views. 


144 


Bulletin  iio. 


io  A.  M. 

4- 

5* 


2  P.  M. 

6. 

7- 


7:30  P.  M. 

8. 


Tuesday,  December  31. 

Observation  of  Insects. 

Insects  ;  How  they  live,  grow  and  multiply.  By 
M.  V.  Slingerland,  Assistant  Entomologist  to  the 
Experiment  Station,  Cornell  University.  Illus¬ 
trated  by  specimens,  charts,  and  papier  mache 
models. 

Observatio?i  upon  Soils. 

Stock,  Silos  and  Soiling  for  Fruit  Growers.  By  I. 
P.  Roberts,  Director  of  the  College  of  Agricul¬ 
ture,  Cornell  University. 

Address:  The  American  Boy.  By  Professor  Roberts. 


New  Year’s  Day. 

10  A.  M. 

9.  Observatio?i  upon  Knot-holes . 

10.  The  Philosophy  and  Practice  of  Pruning.  By  L. 

H.  Bailey. 

2  P.  M. 

11.  Observatioyi  upoii  Black  Curra7its  of  the  Shops. 

12.  Flower-Growing  for  Amateurs.  By  Ernest  Walker, 

Florist,  New  Albany,  Indiana. 

7:30  P.  M. 

Address  :  History  of  Grape-Growing  in  America.  By 
E.  H.  Bailey.  With  lantern  views. 


IO  A.  M. 

14. 

15. 


2  P.  M. 


l6. 

T7- 


Thursday,  January  2. 

Observatio7i  up07i  Figs. 

Vegetable  Gardens  under  Glass.  By  W.  M.  Mun¬ 
son,  Professor  of  Horticulture,  Agricultural  Col¬ 
lege  of  Maine.  With  photographs,  and  samples 
of  the  vegetables. 

Observatio7i  upo7i  Potatoes. 

Potato  Blight  and  Potato  Rot.  By  E.  G.  Eodeman, 
Instructor  in  Horticulture,  Cornell  University.. 
With  specimens. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


r45 


Everyone  is  invited  to  attend  the  various  exercises.  Persons  have  the 
privilege  of  enrolling  themselves  as  students  for  the  purpose  of  identifying 
themselves  intimately  with  the  Extension  movement.  At  the  close  of  each 
day’s  exercise,  the  students  will  be  questioned  upon  the  subject.  This  ques¬ 
tioning  is  not  pursued  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  student’s 
knowledge  of  the  exercise,  but  to  elucidate  the  subject  under  discussion, 
During  the  exercise,  also,  the  student  has  the  privilege  of  freely  asking  ques¬ 
tions  upon  the  topic  under  consideration.  It  is  expected  that  the  instructors 
will  not  be  interrupted  with  questions  during  the  course  of  the  exercise.  Dis¬ 
cussion,  and  questions  asked  for  the  purpose  of  eliciting  information  are  al¬ 
ways  welcome  ;  but  there  is  no  time  for  mere  argument  and  contention. 

The  day  exercises  will  aim  at  specific  instruction  in  particular  subjects. 
The  evening  exercises  will  be  popular  illustrated  lectures. 

Each  day  session  will  be  opened  with  a  lesson  upon  observation.  Students 
will  be  given  specimens,  as  indicated  in  the  program,  and  ten  minutes  will 
be  allowed  for  examination  of  them.  The  students  will  then  be  questioned 
as  to  what  they  have  seen. 

Students  should  provide  themselves  with  note  book  and  pencil. 

Roll  will  be  called  immediately  upon  the  hour  set  for  meeting. 

Printed  synopses  of  all  the  day  lectures  will  be  distributed  to  students. 

Read  up  on  the  subject  under  discussion  before  you  come  to  the  meeting. 
You  will  then  get  more  out  of  the  instruction. 

Roster  of  the  second  Fredonia  School: 


(On  account  of  the  bad  weather  and  the  interruption  of  New  Year’s  Day, 
the  attendance  was  smaller  than  it  otherwise  would  have  been.) 


S.  M.  Aldrich,  Fredonia. 

F.  Baldwin,  Fredonia. 

W.  T.  Benjamin,  Fredonia. 

P.  G.  Cate,  Fredonia. 

H.  B.  Clothier,  Forestville. 

R.  C.  Clothier,  Silver  Creek. 

T.  W.  Clute,  Fredonia. 

E.  L.  Colvin,  Fredonia. 

L.  E.  Cowden,  Fredonia. 

S.  S.  Crissey,  Fredonia. 

Eliza  Denton,  Fredonia. 

U.  E.  Dodge,  Fredonia. 
Elbert  A.  Guest,  Fredonia. 
George  Hammond,  Fredonia. 

F.  W.  Howard,  Fredonia. 

G.  Jaarda,  Fredonia. 

F.  M.  Kidder,  Fredonia. 

J.  N.  Larder,  Fredonia. 


R.  D.  Luther,  Fredonia. 

S.  T.  Lyne,  Fredonia. 

C.  J.  Mason,  Fredonia. 

Thos.  Moran,  Fredonia. 

E.  J.  Oakes,  Fredonia. 

Dr.  Wm.  Parks,  Fredonia. 

Dr.  A.  P.  Phillips,  Fredonia. 

Dr.  N.  Y.  Richmond,  Fredonia. 
Lewis  Roesch,  Fredonia. 

Mrs  M.  H.  Sackett,  Fredonia. 
David  Scott,  Fredonia. 

Henry  Smith,  Fredonia. 

Miss  L.  Smith,  Fredonia. 

Mrs.  L.  E.  South  wick,  Fredonia. 
John  W.  Spencer,  Westfield. 

J.  Spink,  Fredonia. 

N.  A.  Tambling,  Fredonia. 

Karl  A.  Thatcher,  Fredonia. 


146 


Bulletin  iio. 


John  C.  Theis,  Fredonia. 
A.  W.  Tuttle,  Fredonia. 


I.  A.  Wilcox,  Portland. 

Mrs.  I.  A.  Wilcox,  Portland. 
E.  P.  Wilson,  Fredonia.  . 

L.  I.  Young,  Fredonia. 


W.  H.  Van  Scoter,  Fredonia. 


H.  F.  Weaver,  Fredonia. 
E.  I.  Wilcox,  Fredonia. 


45  students. 


The  synopses  which  have  been  used  in  the  various  meetings 
are  as  follows : 

THEORY  OF  TILLAGE  AND  PRODUCTIVITY  OF  LAND. 


(  Given  at  first  Fredonia  School .) 

— By  Professor  Roberts. 


I.  Plant  food  in  the  soil. 

II.  Its  availability.  Objects  of  cultivation  : 

1.  To  promote  capillarity. 

2.  To  bring  fertility  to  the  plant. 

3.  To  set  free  the  mineral  plant  food. 

4.  To  hasten  nitrification. 

5.  To  aerate  the  soil,  or  to  prevent  too  free  aeration . 

6.  To  present  new  surfaces  to  the  rootlets. 

7.  To  induce  new  root  growth, 
b.  To  conserve  moisture. 

9.  To  facilitate  the  drying  of  the  land. 

10.  To  form  a  mulch. 

III.  Treatment  of  the  land. 

How  to  cultivate. 

When  to  cultivate. 

Crimson  clover. 

Phosphoric  acid. 

Potash. 

[Students  should  consult  Bulletin  72,  Cornell  Experiment  Station.) 


PL  O  V  VS  A  ND  PL  O  WING . 


[Given  at  Jamestown  School .) 


—By  I,  P.  Roberts. 


I.  Why  we  Plow. 


Effects  of  Plowing  on  moisture. 
Drying  and  warming  the  land. 
Conservation  of  moisture. 
Preventing  Hard-Pan. 

Increased  Storage  Capacity. 
Aeration  of  Soil. 

To  promote  Nitrification. 

To  bury  Trash. 

To  prepare  a  home  for  plants. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticukture. 


147 


II.  When  to  Plow. 

III.  How  to  Plow. 

IV.  When  and  How  not  to  Plow. 

STOCK ,  SILOS  AND  SOILING  FOR  FRUIT-GROWERS. 
(Given  at  the  second  Fredonia  School .) 

— By  I.  P.  Roberts. 

1.  Importance  of  the  animal  in  the  rotation.  Manure.  The  animal  en¬ 

forces  a  change  of  cropping.  The  ideal  farm  is  self-sustaining,  making 
its  own  fertility.  Gives  continuous  employment.  Value  of  the  stock 
itself. 

2.  How  stock  may  be  kept  without  permanent  pastures  or  meadows. 

A.  Silage.  The  value  of  silage,  and  how  to  use  it.  Crops  which  may 
be  made  into  silage.  Silage  rations  for  various  animals, — horses, 
milch  cows,  steers,  sheep,  hogs,  poultry. 

How  to  make  the  silo. 

How  to  fill  it. 

B.  Soiling.  What  it  is,  and  what  are  its  uses.  Crops  which  may  be 
grown  for  soiling  purposes.  Yield  of  soilage  crops.  Soiling  in  catch 
crops.  Soiling  in  the  rotation.  Can  soiling  be  substituted  for  pas¬ 
turage  ? 

3.  What  stock,  and  how  many,  can  the  fruit  grower  with  80  acres  of  land 

keep  with  profit?  How  to  procure  good  stock. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  OF  THE  GRAPE. 

( Given  at  first  Fredonia  School .) 

— By  Professor  Caedweee. 

I.  The  chemistry  of  the  soil. 

(a)  An  arable  soil  in  its  best  condition  for  producing  crops  contains  seven 

essential  parts  : 

(1)  Clay;  (2)  sand;  (3)  assimilable  plant  food;  (4)  moisture;  (5) 
humus ;  (6)  air ;  (7)  micro-organisms. 

(b)  Clay  furnishes  the  substantial  medium  required  by  the  plant  as  a  root- 

hold,  and  is  also  a  storehouse  for  preserving  some  of  its  food  from  waste. 

(c)  Sand  is  required  to  make  more  friable  and  porous  the  too  stiff  and  com¬ 

pact  soil  that  clay  alone  would  yield. 

(d)  The  most  important  part  of  the  food  of  the  plant  that  is  in  the  soil  con¬ 

sists  of  nitrogen,  lime,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid,  forming  a  very 
small  part  of  the  soil,  and  mostly  insoluble,  or  unassimilable. 

(e)  Plant  growth  involves  unceasing  chemical  change  in  the  soil  as  well  as 

in  the  plant  itself,  and  this  cannot  go  on  without  water,  nor  can  plant 
food  be  taken  up  without  it. 

(f)  Humus,  or  decaying  vegetable  and  animal  matter  is,  as  it  decays,  a 

source  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is  an  important  solvent  of  plant  food  ; 
humus  also  itself  contains  plant  food,  and  it  is  a  loosener  of  the  soil. 

(g)  Air  is  necessary  in  the  soil  for  its  oxygen,  without  which  the  humus  is 

not  formed,  and  cannot  decay, 


Bulletin  ho. 


148 

(h)  An  important  featnre  of  this  decay  is  the  progress  of  nitrification  ;  this 
does  not  go  on  without  the  assistance  of  micro-organisms. 

1 1 .  The  chemistry  of  the  grape. 

(a)  The  vine  as  a  whole  is  composed  of  three  parts  :  Water,  combustible 

matter,  and  incombustible  matter. 

(b)  The  largest  part  of  the  dry  plant  is  combustible,  consists  of  what  is 

called  carbonaceous  matter,  and  is  derived  from  the  air. 

(c)  The  rest  of  the  combustible  matter,  forming  but  a  small  portion  of  it, 

contains  nitrogen,  and  is  called  nitrogenous  matter  or  proteids. 
Though  small  in  proportion  it  is  very  important.  The  nitrogen  for  it 
must  come  from  the  soil. 

(d)  The  production  of  starch,  sugar,  cell-walls  and  acids  is  the  chief  work 

accomplished  in  the  growth  of  the  vine  and  its  fruit. 

(e)  The  quality  of  the  grape  for  eating  depends  largely  on  the  relative 

proportions  of  sugar  and  acid.  The  ripening  of  the  grape  consists 
largely  in  changes  in  these  proportions. 

(f)  Can  the  grape  grower  modify  these  proportions  bv  fertilizing  or  other 

treatment  of  the  plant? 

(g)  The  fermenting  of  the  grape  juice  depends  on  its  sugar,  the  access  of 

air  and  the  assistance  of  micro-organisms. 

HOW  CAN  THE  FARMER  TELL  WHAT  FERTILIZER  HIS 

SOIL  NEEDS? 

{Given  at  the  Jamestown  School .) 

— By  G.  C.  Caldwell. 

Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  are  the  only  plant  foods  that  need 
any  special  looking  after  in  the  management  of  manuring  the  soil. 

The  old-time  management  compared  with  more  modern  methods.  In 
some  respects  the  modern  method  better,  in  others  not.  Neither  method  is 
based  on  any  real  knowledge  of  what  any  particular  crop  growing  on  any 
particular  soil  requires.  No  royal  road,  to  this  knowledge  The  chemical 
analysis  of  the  soil  will  not  give  a  reliable  answer  to  the  question  in  hand, 
because  the  soil  of  a  field  cannot  be  fairly  sampled.  A  recent  striking  illus¬ 
tration  of  the  difficulty. 

The  question  must  be  put  to  the  soil  and  crops  together  in  each  case,  by 
plot  experiment.  The  difficulties  of  this  method  discussed. 

How  the  experiment  should  be  conducted, — 
a  :  Selection  and  preparation  of  the  field, 
b  :  Size,  shape  and  arrangement  of  the  plots, 
c  :  Fertilizers  to  be  used,  and  when  and  how  to  be  applied, 
d  :  Cultivation  of  the  crop, 
e  :  Harvesting  and  measurement  of  the  crop, 
f  :  Corrections  that  may  be  made  to  even  up  the  results. 

The  use  of  the  results  as  an  answer  to  the  question  put.  Concerning 
the  repetition  of  the  experiment. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


H9 


THE  NUTRITION  OF  PLANTS . 

{Given  at  first  Fredonia  School). 

— By  Professor  Roweee. 

r.  Nutrition  is  one  of  the  two  primary  functions  of  all  organisms.  The 
other  is  reproduction. 

2.  There  are  different  methods  of  taking  food.  Amoeba  absorbs  its  food 
through  the  walls  of  its  body.  In  higher  forms  a  body  cavity  is  developed 
and  food  is  absorbed  only  through  its  walls.  The  culmination  of  complexity 
of  structure  is  reached  in  the  highly  complicated  respiratory  and  digestive 
systems  of  the  higher  animals. 

3.  To  understand  the  relation  of  nutrition  in  plants  to  nutrition  in  ani¬ 
mals,  one  must  go  back  to  primitive  methods  of  taking  food. 

4.  There  are  two  great  operations  going  on  in  living  beings,  one  a  build¬ 
ing  up  process  (constructive),  the  other  a  tearing  down  process  (destructive). 

5.  These  processes  may  be  distinguished, — (a)  by  the  materials  used  as 
food,  (b)  by  the  structure  of  the  operating  organs,  (c)  by  the  product  of  the 
operation. 

6.  There  is  no  hard  and  fast  line  separating  animals  from  plants.  The 
method  of  nutrition  prevailing  among  plants  is  one  of  the  most  decisive 
characters. 

7.  The  chlorophyll  function  (photosynthesis). 

8.  The  content  of  the  vegetable  cell  is  primarily  protoplasm.  This  in 
active  cells  is  differentiated  in  two  parts, — the  nucleus,  at  the  center,  and 
the  ectoplasm,  the  lining  membrane  of  the  wall.  The  former  displays 
greater  activity  in  the  processes  of  reproduction,  the  latter,  in  those  of 
nutrition. 

9.  The  green  pigment,  chlorophyll,  which  gives  the  green  color  to  plants 
is  fixed  in  minute  differentiated  masses  of  proplasm,  called  chlorophyll 
bodies. 

to.  Various  forms  of  chlorophyll  bodies, — Oscillaria, — Spirogyra, — Chara, 
— Coleus. 

Hi  Movement  of  the  chlorophyll  bodies  occurs  in  all  plants  so  far  as 
known.  It  is  rapid  in  Elodea  aud  Vallisneria. 

12.  Conditions  best  suited  to  activity  of  these  workers.  Importance  of 
sunlight.  Pruning  to  avoid  waste  of  energy. 

13.  Plants  without  chlorophyll. 

14.  General  conclusions. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  NUTRITION  OF  PLANTS. 

(1 Given  at  the  Jamestown  School). 

— By  E.  J.  Durand. 

All  plants  built  up  of  cells. — Various  forms  of  cells  in  different  parts  of 
the  plant. 

The  green  coloring  matter  of  plants  ( chlorophyll . ) 


150 


Bulletin  ho. 


The  essential  elements  of  plant  food. — These  are  obtained  (i)  from  the 
soil,  (2)  from  the  air.  The  food  of  the  seedling  ;  of  the  mature  plant. 

What  is  sap  ?  Water  and  certain  soluble  portions  of  plant  food  are  ab¬ 
sorbed  from  the  soil  by  the  root  hairs. — Forced  up  through  the  sap-wood  or 
inner  bark  by  root-pressure. — Most  of  the  water  is  evaporated  from  the  leaves 
through  the  stomates. — The  constant  current  of  water  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves. — Some  of  the  water  combined  with  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air 
forms  starch. 

Assimilation. — This  process  can  take  place  only  in  the  presence  of  chlo¬ 
rophyll  and  light.  Parasitic  plants  containing  no  chlorophyll  cannot  assim¬ 
ilate  carbon  dioxide. 

The  diffusion  of  the  assimilated  food. — It  may  be  used  at  once  ;  or  stored 
up,  usually  (1)  roots  e.  g.}  carrot,  maple,  or  (2)  underground  stems,  e.  g. 
potato  — This  stored  up  material  forms  the  food  of  many  plants  in  spring 
before  the  leaves  start. 

Respiration ,  the  breaking  down  of  tissue  and  its  burning  up  with  oxygen. 
POLLEN:  WHA  T  IT  IS,  AND  WHA  T  IT  DOES. 

{Given  at  the  second  Fredonia  School .) 

— By  E.  J.  Durand. 

1.  Stamens  and  Pistils:  The  essential  parts  of  a  flower;  their  sexual 

function. 

Pollen.  The  floury  mass  of  minute  grains  borne  in  the  anther,  the  sack 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  stamen. 

2.  The  pollen-grain  consists  of  a  rounded  bit  of  fluid,  protoplasm ,  sur¬ 

rounded  by  two  membranes.  Some  of  the  forms  of  pollen.  After 
being  scattered  from  the  anther,  the  pollen  is  carried  by  the  wind  or 
by  insects,  or  other  agencies,  to  the  pistils  of  other  plants  of  the  same 
species. 

3.  Office  of  the  pollen.  The  pollen-grain  germinates  by  sending  out  a  min¬ 

ute  tube,  which  grows  down  through  the  pistil,  finally  entering  the 
ovary  to  fertilize  the  egg-cell.  How  fecundation  takes  place. 

4.  Close  fertilization  and  cross  fertilization .  The  most  healthy  and  hardy 

seed  is  borne  by  the  plant  whose  flowers  have  been  fertilized  by  pollen 
from  a  different  plant. 

5.  Some  devices  of  plants  to  insure  cross  fertilization.  The  stamens  and 

pistils  may  be  borne  in  different  plants,  e.  g.  Maples  and  Willows. 
The  stamens  may  mature  before  the  pistils  on  the  same  plant,  e  g. 
Sunflower.  Pollen  may  be  impotent  when  applied  to  the  pistil  of  the 
same  plant,  or  of  the  same  variety,  as  in  some  varieties  of  fruits.  The 
case  of  Pears.  Special  devices  to  insure  cross-fertilization. 

6.  The  agency  of  insects  in  crossfertilization.  Why  flowers  are  colored. 

The  office  of  nectar  (honey).  Importance  of  bees  in  orchards.  Some 
flowers  fertilized  by  special  insects,  e.  g.  clover.  Some  adaptations  of 
insects  for  carrying  pollen. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


x5 1 


FUNGI  AND  FUNGOUS  DISEASES. 
( Given  at  the  Jamestown  School.) 


I. 


II. 


— By  E.  G.  Lodeman. 

Bacteria. 

What  are  they  ? 

Some  of  their  characters. 

Effects  upon  plants.  Pear-blight. 

Methods  of  treatment. 

Methods  of  study  in  the  laboratory.  Illustrated  by  specimens  and 
photographs. 

Fungi  Proper. 

The  principal  groups,  respecting  their  habit  of  life  : 

1.  Feeding  upon  living  tissues  (Parasites). 

2.  Feeding  upon  injured  or  dying  tissue. 

3.  Feeding  upon  dead  tissue  (Saphrophytes). 

Consideration  of  the  first  group  (Parasites). 

How  they  injure  plants  ;  1,  by  growing  on  the  surface  of  the  host 
plant  ;  2,  by  growing  within  the  tissue  of  the  host. 

External  indications  of  their  presence.  Illustrated  by  examples 
and  photographs. 

How  they  pass  the  winter. 

Conditions  favoring  their  development. 

Methods  of  dissemination. 

Methods  of  study  in  the  laboratory.  Illustrated  by  specimens. 
Methods  of  treatment. 


POTATO  DISEASES. 

(  Given  at  the  second  Fredonia  School.) 

— By  E.  G.  Lodeman. 

A.  Scab.  Due  to  a  fungus  (Oospora  scabies). 

Nature  of  the  fungus.  It  lives  both  in  the  tubers  and  in  the  soil. 

Treatment  of  the  tubers  ;  of  the  soil. 

Where  it  is  worst  ;  effects  of  much  stable  manure  ;  often  worse  where 
lime  or  ashes  have  been  used,  probably  because  these  materials 
modify  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Clean  seed,  clean  land,  and  rotation  are  the  soverign  remedies. 

There  is  a  scab  which  is  produced  by  insects. 

B.  Early  Blight.  Caused  by  a  fungus  ( Macrosporium  Solani). 

Features  of  the  disease  ;  appears  early  in  the  season,  in  small  spots, 
and  causes  the  leaf  to  shrivel  as  if  suffering  from  drought ;  spreads 
slowly  ;  tubers  do  not  rot.  It  is  the  commonest  disease  of  potato 
tops. 

The  flea-beetle  and  its  relation  to  the  disease. 

The  remedy.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 


152 


Bulletin  iio. 


C.  Late  Blight ,  Rot.  Caused  by  a  fungus  ( Phytophthora  infestans ). 

This  is  the  potato  disease  of  history,  and  it  once  caused  a  famine  in 
Ireland.  Known  for  a  half  century. 

Usually  appears  after  the  middle  of  July  ;  attacks  large  areas  of  the 
leaf;  spreads  rapidly,  causing  vines  to  wilt  down  ;  tubers  contract 
a  dry  rot. 

How  it  is  treated.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  specific.  Treatment  of 
tubers  in  the  cellar ;  lime  and  plaster  ;  heating. 

INSECTS  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES. 

[Given  at  the  Jamestown ,  Lockport .  and  the  second  Fredonia  Schools.) 

— By  M.  V.  Slingeri^and. 
Illustrated  by  large  models,  diagrams,  and  specimens. 

1.  What  is  an  insect  ? 

Its  near  relatives. 

How  many  insects  are  known  ? 

2.  How  they  are  built. 

External  features.  Appendages  of  the  body  and  their  use. 

Internal  structure  ;  muscular  system  ;  how  they  breathe  ;  the  blood 
and  its  circulation  ;  their  nerves. 

3.  How  they  feed. 

Striking  differences  in  their  mouth  parts. 

4.  Their  sensations. 

The  five  senses,  their  form,  location,  and  range  in  insects. 

5.  The  story  of  their  life. 

How  it  begins.  How  they  grow.  Their  wonderful  transformations. 

6.  Injurious  insects. 

Questions  answered,  and  discussion  of  any  specimens  which  may  be 
brought  in. 

THE  NURSERY ;  FROM  THE  SEED  TO  THE  SETTING  OF 

THE  PLANTATION. 

( Given  at  the  first  Fredonia  School. ) 

—By  Nelson  C.  Smith,  Geneva. 

I.  Cuttings. — The  kinds  :  hardwood,  softwood,  long,  short,  single  eye, 
root  cuttings.  How  and  when  they  are  taken.  How  stored  and  how 
planted.  What  plants  are  thus  propagated.  Commercial  propagation  of 
currants,  gooseberries,  grapes. 

II.  Layers. — How  made  and  when.  Tip  layering.  The  raspberry. 
Mound  or  stool  layering.  The  English  gooseberry  and  quince. 

III.  Budding. — The  method :  the  stock,  cutting  the  cions,  setting  the 
buds,  tying,  subsequent  treatment.  What  plants  are  budded,  and  when. 

IV.  Grafting. — The  kinds  :  root,  top,  crown,  cleft,  whip.  Uses  of  each. 
What  plants  are  grafted  in  the  nursery,  how  and  when. 

V.  General  nursery  practice. — Lands  and  fertilizers.  Method  of  culti- 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


i53 

vating.  Raising  the  stocks.  Importing  them.  Transplanting.  Trimming. 
Stripping.  Double-working. 

VI.  Advice  to  purchasers. — Age  of  trees  and  vines  to  plant.  Points  of 
first-class  stock.  Trimming  the  young  trees  at  planting  time.  How  to 
plant.  When  to  buy  and  plant. 

The  whole  to  be  illustrated  with  operations  and  specimens.  {Students  are 
referred  to  Bulletins  6g  and  77,  Cornell  Experiment  Station. ) 

Definitions. — Cutting. — A  severed  portion  of  a  plant  which  is  inserted 
in  soil  or  water  with  the  intention  that  it  shall  grow.  A  softwood  or  herba¬ 
ceous  cutting  is  often  called  a  slip.  Layer. — A  shoot  or  portion  of  a  plant  bent 
down  and  covered  with  earth  with  the  intention  that  it  shall  take  root  at  the 
covered  part,  when  it  can  be  severed  from  the  parent  plant.  Mound  layer  (or 
stool  layer )  is  an  erect  stool  or  sucker  with  earth  heaped  about  its  base. 
Stock — A  plant  or  part  of  a  plant  upon  which  a  bud  or  scion  is  set.  Graft¬ 
ing. — The  operation  of  inserting  a  cion  in  a  stock.  Cion. — A  portion  of  a 
plant  bearing  one  or  more  buds  and  a  piece  of  stem,  which  is  inserted  into  a 
plant  (the  stock')  with  the  intention  that  it  shall  grow-  Budding. — The  oper¬ 
ation  of  inserting  a  bud,  with  little  or  no  wood  attached,  in  a  plant  with  the 
intention  that  it  shall  grow. 

VEGETABLE  GARDENS  UNDER  GLASS. 

( Given  at  the  second  Fredonia  School. ) 

— By  W.  M.  Munson. 

Illustrated  with  Photographs  and  Specimens  of  Vegetables. 

1.  Why  vegetables  are  grown  under  glass. 

The  nature  and  extent  of  the  markets. 

Who  may  engage  in  the  business. 

The  profits. 

2.  What  vegetables  are  grown  under  glass. 

1.  Lettuce.  2.  Tomato.  3.  Cucumbers  (two  types).  4.  Asparagus. 
5.  Rhubarb.  6.  Beans.  7.  Radish.  8.  Cauliflower.  9.  Melon.  10. 
Pepper,  n.  Eggplant.  12.  Miscellaneous,  as  cress,  sweet  herbs,  etc. 

3.  The  houses  which  are  used  for  winter  gardens. 

a.  The  lean-to  house. 

b.  The  uneven  span  house. 

c.  The  even  span  house. 

d.  How  they  are  made  : — foundations,  sides,  roof,  ventilators,  glass. 

e.  How  much  they  cost. 

f.  How  they  are  heated  : — flues,  steam,  water. 

g.  How  hot  they  must  be  :  the  cool  house,  for  lettuce  and  the  like  ; 
the  warm  house,  for  tomatoes  and  cucumbers. 

h.  How  the  sunlight  is  managed  : — clear  roofs  and  shaded  ones. 
Internal  arrangement,  and  general  management. 

a.  The  beds  or  benches. 

b.  The  soil. 


4- 


.154 


c. 

d. 

e. 


Bulletin  ho. 


The  water. 

Insects  and  fungi. 

It  all  depends  upon  the  gardener. 


FLOWER-GROWING  FOR  AMATEURS;  OR  FLOWERS  IN 

AND  AROUND  THE  HOUSE. 

( Given  at  the  second  Fredonia  School. ) 

— By  Ernest  Walker. 

1.  Propagation  of  plants. 

(a)  By  Seeds.  Seed  pans  or  trays.  Soil.  The  conditions  of  germina¬ 

tion.  Soaking  seeds.  Filing.  Depth  to  sow.  Watering.  Tem¬ 
perature.  Light.  “  Drawing  up.”  “  Damping  off.” 

(b)  By  buds,  Tubers,  Corms,  Scales,  Root-cuttings,  Budding,  Grafting, 

Layers,  Leaf-cuttings,  Head-wood  cuttings,  Soft-wood  cuttings, 
Saucer-system,  Close-system. 

2.  Transplanting  plants. 

Potting  soil. 

Seedlings  and  cuttings,  potting,  Boxing,  Larger  plants  shifting, 
“  Setting  out.” 

3.  Window  Gardening . 

Difficulties,  Selection  of  plants,  Unsuitable  plants,  Preparation  for 
winter  bloom.  Bulbs,  potting,  rooting.  Watering  plants.  How 
roots  absorb.  Loss  of  water.  How  roots  behave  in  pots.  How 
often  to  water.  Leaf  surface.  Size  of  pots.  Pots  in  saucers. 
Sickly  plants.  Dust.  Insects. 

4.  The  Yard. 

Lawn.  Concealing  the  unsightly  objects.  Foliage.  Flowers.  The 
location  and  planting  of  borders,  and  beds.  Vases.  Simplicity. 
Shrubs.  Trees.  ‘  ‘  Come  ’round  and  see  my  back  yard.  ” 

COMMERCIAL  CRAPE  CULTURE  IN  CHAUTAUQUA  COUNTY 

( Given  at  the  first  Fredonia  School. ) 

—  By  S.  S.  Crissey  and  G.  Schoenfeld. 

I.  Modern  Methods  an  Outgrowth. — Examples  ;  pruning  and  train¬ 
ing;  distances  for  planting  ;  varieties;  culture;  extent  of  acreage. 

II.  Modifying  Influences. — Varieties  modified  by  climate  ;  cultiva¬ 
tion  modified  by  extent ;  the  educational  work  of  societies  and  institutes. 

III.  Physical  Topography.  Natural  superiority  for  grapes  due  to  cli¬ 
mate  ;  theory  of  thermal  strata;  formation  of  Northern  Chautauqua;  land 
and  lake  air  currents  ;  Freedom  from  fungi ;  Exemption  from  frosts  ;  high 
summer  temperature  ;  dryness  of  the  atmosphere. 

IV.  Pruning. — Philosophy  of ;  physiological  effects  ;  grapevine  period¬ 
ically  extends  its  structure  ;  evil  effects  of  improper  methods. 

V.  Green  Manuring. — Plant  food  available  by  nitrification  ;  green 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


i55 


crops  in  fall  and  spring  prevent  loss  of  nitrogen;  improvement  of  mechanical 
condition  ;  comparative  value  of  fertilizers  furnished  by  green  manuring ; 
effect  on  cultivation. 

PICKING  AND  PACKING  GRAPES. 

( Given  at  the  first  Fredonia  School. ) 

— By  J.  A.  Tennant. 

I.  Time  to  Pick;  What  to  pick  in;  How  to  Pick;  How  to  Remove  to 
Packing  House ;  How  to  Store  ;  When  to  Pack  ;  How  to  Pack  ;  What  to 
Pack  in  ;  How  long  to  keep  when  packed,  before  marketing. 

Above  applying  to  common  methods  of  marketing. 

II.  Suggestions  as  to  shipping-crates. 

III.  New  scheme  concerning  handling  and  marketing  grapes. 

A  BRIEF  OF  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  PLANTS. 

{Given  at  the  first  Fredonia  School.) 

— By  L.  H.  Bailey. 

1.  Conception  of  an  organic  evolution.  Its  relation  to  philosophy,  his¬ 
tory,  sociology,  theology. 

2.  Reasons  for  the  belief  in  evolution.  Struggle  for  existence.  Constant 
changes  in  the  external  world. 

3.  Explanations  of  evolution.  Lamarckism.  Darwinism.  Neo-Darwin¬ 
ism  or  Weismannism.  Neo-Larmarckism. 

4.  Divergence  of  the  animal  and  plant.  Individuality.  Theory  of  the 
phytomer.  Bud  variation.  Philosophy  of  pruning. 

5.  Variants  of  domestication.  Climate.  Food  supply  :  (a)  character  of 
soil;  (b)  thin  planting;  (c)  fertilizing;  (d)  tillage.  Change  of  seed. 
Greenhouses. 

6.  Philosophy  of  sex.  It  exists  for  the  purpose  of  making  variable  off¬ 
spring.  Crossing  and  hybridizing  amongst  plants. 

7.  Selection  as  a  means  of  contemporaneous  evolution. 

Definitions  : — Family ,  Order  in  botany. — A  group  of  genera  and  species  ; 

as  Ciipulifercs,  the  Oak  Family,  Rosacece,  the  Rose  Family. 

Genus  (plural,  genera). — A  group  or  kind  comprising  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  closely  related  species;  as  Acer ,  the  maples,  Fragaria ,  the 
strawberries. 

Species  (plural  species). — An  indefinite  term  applied  to  all  individuals  of  a 
certain  kind  which  come  or  are  supposed  to  come  from  a  common  parentage. 
A  perennial  succession  of  normal  or  natural  similar  individuals  perpetuated 
by  means  of  seedage.  “  All  the  descendants  from  the  same  stock.” — Gray. 

Variety. — A  form  or  series  of  forms  of  a  species  marked  by  characters  of 
less  permanence  or  less  importance  than  are  the  species  themselves. 

Sport. — A  variety  or  variation  which  appears  suddenly  and  unaccountably, 
either  from  seeds  or  buds. 


Bulletin  ho. 


156 

Cross. — The  offspring  of  any  two  flowers  which  have  been  cross-fertilized. 
Hybrid. — A  cross  between  two  distinct  species. 

Environment. — The  conditions  or  circumstances  in  which  an  organism 
lives,  comprising  climate,  soil,  and  all  other  external  conditions. 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  PRUNING. 


A. 


{Given  at  the  second  Fredonia  School .) 

— By  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Why  we  prune. 

1.  To  produce  larger  and  better  fruit. 

2.  To  keep  the  plant  within  manageable  shape  and  limits. 

3.  To  change  the  hat>it  of  the  plant  from  more  or  less  wood-bearing 

or  fruit-bearing. 

4.  To  remove  superfluous  or  injured  parts. 

5.  To  facilitate  spraying. 

6.  To  facilitate  tillage  and  to  improve  the  convenience  of  the 

plantation. 


B.  The  philosophy  oe  pruning. 

1.  The  argument  from  philosophy. 

The  struggle  of  existence  amongst  the  branches. 

2.  The  argument  from  physiology. 

3.  The  argument  from  experience. 

4.  How  nature  prunes. 

C.  How  AND  WHEN  TO  PRUNE. 

1.  The  position  of  the  fruit  buds. 

2.  How  wounds  heal. 

(a)  The  cork  cells  and  their  mission. 

(b)  The  cambium  and  its  office.  The  tension  in  stems.  The  callus. 

(c)  The  form  of  the  wound  in  relation  to  the  healing  process. 

The  wound  parallel  to  the  parent  branch.  The  wound  at 
right  angles  to  the  severed  branch  The  shoulder.  The 
direction  of  the  wound.  The  length  of  the  stub.  The 
edges  of  the  wound. 

(d)  The  time  to  prune,  with  reference  to  the  healing  of  the  wound. 

More  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  wound  than  upon 
the  season  in  which  it  was  made. 

(e)  Dressing  for  wounds.  The  vegetable  parasites  of  the  wounds  ; 

bacteria  ;  toadstool-fungi ;  punk-fungi. 

3.  Pruning  for  wood  and  pruning  for  fruit. 

4.  Practical  considerations.  Allow  the  tree  to  take  its  habitual  form. 

How  much  and  how  often  it  is  advisable  to  prune.  Head- 
ing-in.  Tools. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


i57 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  ORCHARD  LANDS. 

« 

( Given  at  the  Youngstown  School ;  also  followed  essentially  in  meetings  at 
Dickensonville ,  Morton ,  Dansville,  Clyde ,  Ridgeway ,  Williamson , 
Palmyra ,  Lyndonville ,  Dundee  and  other  places.) 

— By  L.  H.  Bailey. 

1.  The  Soil. 

Its  origin.  Its  mechanical  texture  and  physical  characters. 

Soil  moisture.  Its  source.  Its  importance.  Movements.  How  con¬ 
served.  Its  relation  to  vegetable  covers.  Mulches. 

Tillage.  Spring  or  fall  plowing.  The  harrow.  Management  of  clay 
lands. 

2.  Fertility. 

Amount  of  fertility  in  the  soil.  Where  it  comes  from.  Tillage  and 
fertility.  Nitrification.  Humus.  Loams. 

Manuring.  Feed  the  plant  rather  than  the  soil.  Nitrogen.  Potash. 
Phosphorus.  Stable  manures.  Green  manures.  Commercial  fer¬ 
tilizers. 

How  to  tell  what  the  land  needs.  Ask  the  plant,  not  the  chemist. 

At  the  first  Fredonia  School,  an  eight-page  folder  was  printed 
for  the  use  of  the  participants,  containing  extracts  and  abstracts 
of  various  local  essays  touching  the  grape-growing  of  the  Chau¬ 
tauqua  region.  There  are  so  many  suggestive  things  in  this 
circular,  not  only  to  Chautauqua  County,  but  also  to  many  other 
parts  of  western  New  York,  that  an  abstract  of  it  is  published 
here  : 

GRAPES:  DEVELOPMENT  OF  METHODS  ON  LARGE 

AREAS. 

(  Used  at  the  first  Fredonia  School. ) 

Introduction. 

Modern  methods  in  vineyard  management  are  an  outgrowth  or  develop¬ 
ment.  Consider,  for  example,  pruning  and  training.  We  began  with 
stakes ;  first  one  stake  per  vine,  then  two  stakes  per  vine,  then  post  and  wire 
trellis.  At  first,  we  used  posts  six  and  one-half  feet  and  two  wires,  then 
posts  seven  and  eight  feet  and  three  wires,  and  now  in  some  instances  posts 
nine  and  ten  feet  and  four  wires.  Distances  of  planting  are  also  an  out¬ 
growth.  In  an  early  day,  Concord  vineyards  were  in  some  few  cases  put  as 
close  as  six  feet  each  way.  Thousands  of  acres  have  been  set  eight  feet  by 
eight,  and  later,  thousands  of  acres  more  at  the  now  commonly  received  dis¬ 
tance  of  nine  feet  between  the  rows.  The  development  in  varieties  is 
equally  marked.  For  many  years  Catawba  and  Isabella  were  the  standard, 
then  came  Clinton  and  Delaware,  then  the  Concord  and  its  well-known  seed¬ 
lings;  then  Brighton,  Niagara,  Diamond,  Moyer,  Vergennes,  Jessica,  and 
last  some  new  early  varieties  not  yet  fully  disseminated  but  from  which 


158 


Bulletin  ho. 


much  is  expected.  Methods  of  cultivation  are  a  development.  The  first 
cultivation  was  in  small  garden  plantings,  tilled  by  hand  or  the  one  horse 
cultivator,  and  in  a  slow,  laborious  and  comparatively  costly  way. 

The  grape  industry  has  outgrown  the  garden  period  and  has  become  a  farm 
crop.  Methods  of  cultivation  which  are  well  enough  for  a  quarter  acre,  are 
too  slow  and  costly  for  twenty-five  acres.  Vineyardists  have  been  obliged  to 
widen  the  rows,  put  on  two  horses,  use  the  gang  plows  and  the  latest  im¬ 
proved  spring  tooth  harrows  and  horse  hoes.  We  have  introduced  this  line 
of  thought,  which  is  perfectly  familiar  to  all  of  you,  and  which  might  be 
extended  to  many  other  branches  of  the  industry,  for  the  purpose  of  calling 
your  attention,  in  this  introductory  part  of  to-day’s  study,  to  some  of  the 
causes  which  have  led  to  this  rapid  development. 

As  we  study  the  philosophy  of  vineyard  management,  we  are  impressed 
with  the  interdependence  and  modifying  influence  of  one  branch  or  condi¬ 
tion  upon  others.  To  illustrate  :  the  species  and  varieties  we  can  profitably 
grow  are  determined  by  our  climate.  Attempts  to  raise  varieties  grown  ex¬ 
clusively  in  Europe  and  California  have  been  repeated  failures.  Again,  the 
production  of  grapes  on  the  large  scale  now  demanded,  has  greatly  modified 
the  entire  farm  economy.  As  we  have  said,  the  grape  has  become  a  farm 
crop.  We  can  with  as  equal  propriety  speak  of  grape  farms,  as  we  say  dairy 
farms,  stock  farms  or  grain  farms,  and  the  question  of  boarding  houses, 
packing  houses,  machinery,  spraying  apparatus,  etc.,  becomes  a  legitimate 
and  necessary  branch  of  our  farm  study. 

The  development  of  modern  methods  in  grape  growing  has  not  been  car¬ 
ried  forward  independently  of  the  principles  involved.  The  men  who  first 
began  extensive  vineyard  planting  were  men  who  had  already  had,  many  of 
them,  years  of  experience  as  fruit  growers  and  market  gardeners.  They  had 
long  been  members  of  farmers’  clubs  and  leaders  in  its  discussions.  August 
28,  1886,  the  present  Horticultural  Society  was  formed.  This  society  had  in 
its  beginning  a  membership  from  the  best  fruit  growers.  Its  first  president, 
Ira  Porter,  deceased,  had  for  years  been  the  president  of  the  Pomfret  Farm¬ 
ers’  Club.  Lincoln  Fay,  originator  of  the  Fay  currant,  was  a  charter  mem¬ 
ber.  This  society  has  persistently,  and  as  we  think,  wisely,  adhered  to  its 
original  mission  as  stated  in  section  second  of  article  first :  “Its  object  shall 
be  the  advancement  of  its  members  in  a  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  prac¬ 
tice  of  horticulture.”  From  the  first,  we  have  kept  to  the  original  mission, 
“talking  it  out  winters  and  working  it  out  summers,”  along  the  line  of 
advancement  in  the  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  horticulture. 
We  have  held  our  meetings,  discussing  old  questions,  and,  as  fast  as  they 
come  to  the  front,  new  questions,  eagerly  sending  for  and  reading  all  the 
bulletins  of  the  experiment  stations,  reports  of  the  department  at  Washing¬ 
ton,  transactions  of  horticultural  societies,  and  standard  fruit  journals.  In 
twenty  years  there  has  been  rapid  progress,  here  and  in  other  fruit  growing 
centers,  not  only  in  making  history,  but  in  the  development  of  the  funda¬ 
mental  principles  of  scientific  management.  It  has  become  a  broad  field. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


i59 


The  Chautauqua  grape  belt  has  to-day  26,000  acres  of  vines,  and  the  crop 
for  1894.  was  3,600  cars,  or  10,800,000  nine  pound  baskets.  The  special  papers 
brought  before  the  class  for  to-day’s  study  will  be  one  on  “  Topographical 
formation  and  its  relation  to  climate”  (reprint),  “Conditions  of  climate  fav¬ 
oring  the  grape”  (reprint),  “Why  I  sow  rye  in  the  vineyard,”  (reprint) 
“Pruning,”  by  Mr.  Shoenfeld,  “Picking  and  packing.” by  Mr.  Tennant,  and 
perhaps  other  papers.  The  reprints  are  made  to  save  time  and  for  the  con¬ 
venience  of  the  class. 

Grape  Growing  in  Northern  Chautauqua ,  by  E.  S.  Bartholomew . 

The  question  is  often  asked,  why  it  is  that  the  valley  lying  along  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  within  the  border  of  Chautauqua  county,  is  so 
much  better  for  grape  growing  than  very  many  other  sections  of  the 
United  States,  for  it  is  a  fact  that  the  grape  vine  is  found  growing  wild  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  country,  and  the  cultivated  varieties  have  been  tried 
almost  everywhere. 

I  will  answer,  first,  negatively,  that  it  is  not  in  the  soil,  neither  is  it  in  the 
fact  that  the  valleys  of  Chautauqua  and  Bear  lakes  lie  elevated  and  south  of 
Lake  Erie  at  a  distance  of  seven  to  eight  miles.  Then  why  do  not  the  vines 
perfect  fruit  as  well  in  so  many  other  locations,  and  as  regularly  as  in  this 
valley?  It  is  the  climate.  This  peculiar  condition  of  climate,  is  the  result 
of  two  prominent  causes  :  the  great  body  of  water  of  Erie  on  the  north, 
furnishing  by  its  evaporation,  just  the  necessary  hygrometrical  condition  of 
the  atmosphere  ;  and  the  lake  helps  to  form  a  thermal  belt,  or  stratum  of 
warm  air,  furnishing  a  more  even  temperature  during  the  night,  thus  aiding 
the  early  and  perfect  maturing  of  the  grape,  and  affording  immunity  from 

frost . Thus  we  have  a  more  uniform  temperature  during  the 

twenty-four  hours,  so  essential  to  the  earlier  maturing  of  the  fruit. 

This  thermal  stratum  is  intensified  by  the  peculiar  topographical  formation 
of  the  earth  forming  the  south  boundary  of  this  valley.  The  northern  end 
of  the  Alleghany  mountains  forms  a  ridge  of  high  land  of  a  somewhat  circu¬ 
lar  form,  with  its  highest  point  nearest  the  lake,  about  two  miles  west  of  the 
gorge  of  Chautauqua  creek,  at  an  altitude  of  about  seven  hundred  feet  above 
the  lake,  and  about  two  miles  from  it.  From  this  point  westward  it  rounds 
off  from  the  lake,  and  begins  to  break  down  in  its  altitude  until  it  is  lost  in 
the  great  plain  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  Eastward  it  retains  its 
nearness  to  the  lake  to  a  point  about  three  miles  east  of  the  village  of  West- 
field,  when  it  begins  to  recede  from  the  lake,  and  to  slowly  reduce  its  alti¬ 
tude,  until  south  of  Fredonia  it  is  from  five  to  six  miles  from  the  lake.  In 
the  towns  of  Sheridan  and  Hanover,  its  trend  is  changed  to  the  east.  As 
soon  as  its  altitude  decreases,  and  the  distance  from  the  lake  increases,  the 
thermal  stratum  thins  by  widening,  and  much  of  its  benefits  are  lost  to  the 
grape  grower. 

It  will  be  found,  by  careful  observation,  that  the  soil  of  almost  the  entire 
United  States  is  as  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  grape  vine  as  is  that  of 


i6o 


Bulletin  iio. 


this  location,  and  the  success  in  grape  culture  would  be  just  as  remunerative  if 
the  same  climatic  conditions  existed  as  with  us.  Hence  it  is  found  that  the 
peculiar  influeuce  we  have  is  worth  to  us  four  times  as  much  per  acre  as  the 
soil  is. 


Conditio?is  of  Climate  Favoring  the  Grape. 

[From  the  Transactions  of  the  Chautauqua  Horticultural  Society.] 

1.  Exemption  from  frosts,  especially  in  the  fall  months.  The  vine  begins 
to  leaf  out  about  May  io  ;  it  is  in  blossom  June  15  to  20  ;  in  90  days  from 
the  blossoming  the  early,  and  in  120  days  the  late  grapes  are  ripe.  In 
Southern  Chautauqua  and  in  parts  of  Cattaraugus  and  Allegany  counties,  the 
vine  will  grow,  but  three  years  ago  in  all  that  section  there  was  a  killing 
frost  on  September  24.  In  this  lake  shore  section,  with  one  exception,  there 
has  not  been  a  damaging  frost  before  October  20  in  twenty-five  years.  In 
1887  the  first  killing  frost  did  not  occur  till  after  the  first  week  in  November. 

2.  The  high  mean  temperature  of  the  summer  months.  In  the  fierce 
heat  and  drought  of  mid-summer,  the  surface  vegetation  of  the  garden  suffers, 
the  pastures  are  scorched  as  by  fire,  but  the  vine,  sending  its  roots  three, 
four  and  even  five  feet  into  the  earth,  is  able  to  withstand  the  severe  trial  if 
the  tillage  is  good. 

3.  Conditions  securing  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  and  perfect  circula¬ 
tion  of  air.  Lake  Erie  is  by  far  the  most  shallow  of  the  five  great  lakes, 
having  an  average  depth  of  only  70  feet.  In  consequence,  it  is  soonest  af¬ 
fected  by  the  summer  heat.  In  mid-summer  we  have  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
day  a  constant  lake  breeze  blowing  inland,  and  during  part  of  the  night  a 
contrary  current.  Going  back  from  the  water,  the  land  gradually  rises  in  a 
succession  of  terraces.  June,  July  and  August  are  the  dangerous  months  for 
disease,  and  just  then  is  experienced  this  climatic  condition  of  dryness  and 
high  temperature.  Bulletin  No.  7,  Botanical  Division,  Department  of  Agri¬ 
culture,  1888,  says:  “At  Sandusky,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  the  loss 
from  black  rot  in  1887  was  only  four  or  five  per  cent.;  the  same  was  true  at 
Fredonia,  Dunkirk  and  Brocton  in  New  York,  and  in  all  these  places  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  dews  or  fogs  during  this  year  was  marked.  In  Tennessee  grape 
culture  is  really  not  remunerative  excepting  above  the  limit  of  fogs.  Thus, 
upon  the  plateaus  of  the  Cumberland  there  is  a  Swiss  colony  that  cultivates 
the  vine  successfully,  and  upon  the  lower  hills  of  Ashland  county,  Ives  seed¬ 
ling  gives  moderately  good  crops,  although  black  rot  is  more  frequent ;  but 
upon  the  Cumberland  river,  where  thick  morning  fogs  are  frequent,  and 
where  the  temperature  is  high,  vine  products  amount  to  almost  nothing.” 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Mr.  Christy,  of  Hanover,  said  that 
wherever  the  lake  breeze  strikes  the  inland  without  any  interruption,  we  do 
not  have  serious  frosts. 

Mr.  Rathbun,  living  near  Smith  Mills,  said  he  planted  a  Delaware  vine¬ 
yard  in  1863.  Delawares  have  never  failed  to  produce  a  crop  and  have  never 
been  injured  by  the  frosts. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  161 

Mr.  Ryckman,  of  Brocton,  said  that  Hanover  is  a  larger  town  than  Portland 
and  there  is  much  good  land  for  grapes  in  it.  I  should  select  the  land  back 
upon  the  the  foot  hills,  even  if  it  should  be,  as  much  of  it  is,  very  poor  for 
ordinary  farming.  On  the  foot  hills,  the  Salem  does  well.  In  planting  he 
preferred  grass  or  sod  ground  to  stubble.  You  need  not  hesitate  to  set  a 

vineyard  because  the  land  is  not  broken  up. 

********* 

From  the  address  of  Hon.  R.  P.  Marvin  (late  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
in  the  Eighth  District)  at  the  meeting  of  the  society  in  Brocton  : 

“  In  1850,  before  grape  growing  had  started  much,  while  holding  court  in 
Cattaraugus  County,  I  met  young  Mr.  Deveraux,  the  son  of  a  prominent 
Utica  man,  who  to  my  great  surprise  told  me  that  we  had  in  northern  Chau¬ 
tauqua  a  great  grape  country.  He  had  traveled  through  all  the  great  grape 
regions  of  Europe.  I  asked  him  why  he  considered  the  lake  region  good  for 
grapes.  He  said  that  Lake  Erie  is  a  shoal  lake  and  consequently  in  winter 
freezes  over.  The  ice  in  the  spring  keeps  vegetation  back  and  gives  a  later 
spring  than  farther  west  around  deeper  lakes.  Thus  we  avoid  late  spring 
frosts.  During  the  summer,  owing  to  its  shallowness,  the  lake  becomes 
warmer  than  either  of  the  other  lakes,  and  this  warm  water  gives  to  this 
section  a  long,  beautiful  autumn  with  plenty  of  time  to  ripen  the  grape  to 
perfection.” 

Why  I  Sow  Rye  in  the  Vineyard ,  By  G.  Shoenfeld. 

In  the  months  of  July  and  August,  when  the  vineyards  should  be  clean 
and  exposed  to  the  sunlight  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  broken  up,  and 
nitrification  proceeds  rapidly.  Nitrogen  being  the  most  valuable  and  costly 
as  well  as  the  most  subtle  element  of  plant  food,  is  then  easily  lost  by  leach¬ 
ing  during  our  fall  and  spring  rains.  To  prevent  this,  in  the  latter  part  of 
August  I  sow  rye  in  the  rows  of  the  grapes.  The  rye  will  thoroughly  pene¬ 
trate  the  ground  with  its  roots  during  the  wet  season,  take  up  and  store 
available  plant  food  for  the  next  season,  when  the  vine  will  appropriate  it, 
besides  putting  the  land  in  just  that  mechanical  condition,  when  plowed 
under,  to  make  the  plants  thrive.  The  plants  want  organic  matter  to  work 
upon  and  plenty  of  heat,  a  moderate  amount  of  moisture,  just  the  right  con¬ 
ditions  in  which  the  vineyard  should  be  during  June  and  July  to  the  middle 
of  August. 

By  adding  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  if  not  in  abundance  already  in  the 
soil,  the  plant  food  for  the  vines  is  complete.  I  consider  such  a  course  bet¬ 
ter  and  safer  than  using  stable  manure  instead.  The  valuable  parts  of  ma- 
uure  are  precisely  the  same  as  in  fertilizers,  viz,,  nitrogen,  potash  and  phos¬ 
phoric  acid.  Its  value  over  commercial  fertilizers  lies  in  its  fibre,  or  vegeta¬ 
ble  substance  ;  but  this  fibre  can  be  added  by  the  rye. 

Following  this  paper  Mr.  Shoenfeld  read  a  statement  of  a  vineyard  of  one 
and  one-half  acres,  which,  before  being  improved  by  plowing  under  rye  for 
a  term  of  years,  produced  a  crop  hardly  worth  harvesting.  In  1892  the 
yield  was  1,184  nine-pound  baskets. 


i62 


Bulletin  ho. 


j>.  Publication . 

The  character  of  the  publication  which  has  been  made  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Experiment  Station  Extension  Bill,  has  already  been 
discussed.  After  conferring  with  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture, 
it  was  decided  to  number  these  extension  bulletins  consecutively 
in  our  regular  series,  thus  avoiding  the  complications  which  would 
arise  from  two  independent  series.  Fifteen  bulletins  (comprised 
between  Nos.  69  and  87,  inclusive)  were  published  from  the  first 
grant  (1894).  Fifteen  bulletins  have  also  been  published  from 
the  second  fund,  but  several  more,  for  which  the  work  is  already 
completed,  are  awaiting  publication  from  the  unexpended  funds 
now  in  our  hands.  The  complete  list  of  these  bulletins  to  date  is 
as  follows : 


No. 

Title. 

Author.  Engrav¬ 

Pages. 

ings. 

69. 

Hints  on  the  Planting  of  Orchards. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  7 

16 

70. 

The  Native  Dwarf  Cherries. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  6 

12 

7i- 

Apricot  Growing  in  western  New  York. 

L-  H.  Bailey.  12 

28 

72. 

The  Cultivation  of  Orchards. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  4 

22 

74- 

Impressions  of  the  Peach  Industry  in 

western  New  York. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  16 

30 

75- 

Peach  Yellows. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  8 

20 

76. 

Some  Grape  Troubles  in  western 

New  York. 

E.  G,  Lodeman.  7 

46 

77. 

The  Grafting  of  Grapes. 

E.  G.  Lodeman.  17 

22 

79- 

Varieties  and  Leaf-Blight  of  the  Straw¬ 

berry. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  11 

26 

80. 

The  Quince  in  western  New  York. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  13 

28 

81. 

Black-Knot  of  Plums  and  Cherries,  and 

Methods  of  Treatment. 

E.  G.  Lodeman.  7 

24 

83- 

A  Plum  Scale  in  western  New  York. 

M.  V.Slingerland.  6 

24 

84. 

The  Recent  Apple  Failures  of  western 

New  York. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  11 

34 

(1  colored) 

86. 

The  Spraying  of  Orchards,— Apples, 

Quinces,  Plums. 

E.  G.  Lodeman.  9 

34 

87-, 

The  Dwarf  Lima  Beans. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  15 

24 

90. 

The  China  Asters  ;  with  Remarks  upon 

Flower  Beds. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  12 

24 

91. 

Recent  Chrysanthemums. 

Michael  Barker.  6 

32 

93- 

The  Cigar-Case-Bearer  in  western  New 

York. 

M.  V.Slingerland.  12 

20 

95- 

Winter  Muskmelons. 

L.  H.  Bailey.  12 

20 

Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

163 

96. 

Forcing-House  Miscellanies.  f 

h.  H  Bailey. 

E.  G.  Lodeman. 

11 

44 

98. 

Cherries.  j 

L.  H.  Bailey, 

G.  H.  Powell, 

15 

34 

99. 

Blackberries. 

Iy.  H.  Bailey. 

15 

26 

IOO. 

Evaporated  Raspberries  in  western 

New  York. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

28 

40 

IOI. 

Notions  about  the  Spraying  of  Trees  ; 

with  remarks  on  the  Canker-Worm. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

8 

24 

102. 

General  Observations  respecting  the 

Care  of  Fruit  Trees  ;  with  some 
reflections  upon  Weeds. 

L .  H.  Bailey. 

4 

26 

IO3. 

Soil  Depletion  in  Respect  to  the  Care 

of  Fruit  Trees. 

I.  P.  Roberts. 

3 

22 

I04. 

Climbing  Cutworms  in  western  New 

York. 

M.  V.Slingerland.  21 

50 

105. 

Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese 

Plums. 

ly.  H.  Bailey. 

14 

30 

IO9. 

Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua 

Grape  Belt. 

R.  S.  Tarr. 

24 

33 

no. 

Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

1 

42 

Total, 

335 

862 

This  report  is  necessarily  but  the  merest  outline  of  the  work 
which  has  been  undertaken  in  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  of 
the  bill.  A  large  part  of  such  work  lies  in  the  visiting  of  farms 
and  communities  where  some  dfficulty  demands  attention,  in  the 
giving  of  advice  everywhere  by  person  and  letter,  and  of  send¬ 
ing  an  entomologist,  botanist,  or  other  expert  to  investigate  such 
dangers  as  seem  to  threaten  any  horticultural  interest.  The  bill 
has  virtually  carried  the  Experiment  Station  to  every  horticul¬ 
turist’s  plantation,  and  every  constituent  has  been  at  liberty  to 
call  for  personal  aid  whenever  his  troubles  are  of  such  a  character 
that  others,  as  well  as  himself,  are  interested  therein.  All  this 
work  does  not  admit  of  publication,  and  its  value  is  all  the  greater 
for  being  done  in  a  quiet,  unostentatious  way,  with  no  thought 
of  public  recognition. 

A  word  should  be  said  respecting  the  attitude  of  Cornell  Uni¬ 
versity  towards  this  grant  of  funds  for  extension  work.  The 
reader  will  already  have  noticed  that  the  movement  originated 
wholly  with  the  people.  If  the  movement  has  value  to  the 
people  of  western  New  York,  the  advantage  must  necessarily 


164 


Bulletin  ho. 


be  in  proportion  to  the  public  desire  and  demand  for  it.  It 
is  in  every  sense  a  popular  movement.  Its  prosecution  has 
imposed  great  burdens  upon  the  officers  who  have  had  it  in 
charge,  and  it  has  demanded  important  changes  and  considerable 
sacrifice  in  the  accustomed  work  of  the  University.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  University  exists  to  serve  the  people  of  the  State,  and 
if  the  people  desire  that  it  undertake  or  continue  such  an  enter¬ 
prise  and  are  satisfied  that  it  can  help  them,  then  the  University, 
on  its  part,  stands  ready  to  lend  its  men,  equipment  and  influence 
to  assist  the  rural  population,  so  far  as  such  undertakings  do  not 
jeopardize  its  more  legitimate  work.  But  it  must  be  distinctly 
understood  that  this  is  not  a  grant  to  Cornell  University,  but  a 
grant  to  the  people  to  be  administered  by  Cornell  University,  and 
that  the  University  has  refused,  and  must  continue  to  refuse,  to 
take  any  part,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  forwarding  any  legislation 
connected  with  the  work. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

January  10,  1896. 


Bulletin  iii.  February,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


By  L.  H.  BAILEY  and  A.  P.  WYMAN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL : 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob 

Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caedwele, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  BaieEY, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Goued  Schurman. 

Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 


I.  P.  Roberts, 
E.  L.  WlEEIAMS, 
H.  W.  Smith, 


M.  V.  Seingereand, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Ceinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 

ASSISTANTS. 

Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106. *  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  The  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  Feb.  i,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir : — A  good  friend  once  wrote  us  that  it  might  be  well  enough 
to  make  a  bulletin  on  chrysanthemums  for  florists,  but  that  what 
the  people  really  want  is  a  bulletin  on  cabbages.  We  replied 
that  if  we  make  a  bulletin  on  cabbages,  the  florist  will 
write  that  such  literature  may  be  allowable,  but  that  the  people 
want  a  bulletin  on  sweet  peas.  And  the  florist  may  add,  with 
much  force,  that  whilst  there  are  bulletins  enough  on  cabbages, 
there  are  none  whatever  on  sweet  peas.  All  this  simply  means 
that  the  constituencies  of  a  government  experiment  station  are 
exceedingly  various,  and  that  all,  alike,  help  to  support  it.  There 
are  probably  more  persons  in  this  state  who  grow  sweet  peas  than 
there  are  who  grow  cabbages  ;  at  least,  such  ought  to  be  the  case. 
There  is  a  wide-spread  feeling  that  flower-growing  is  not  a  com¬ 
mercial  occupation,  but  simply  a  sentimental  one  ;  yet  people  who 
buy  and  sell  flower  seeds  and  cut-flowers  and  flower  plants,  have 
reason  to  hold  a  contrary  opinion.  Flower-growing,  both  for 
home  and  for  market,  is  rapidly  increasing  in  the  east ;  and  of  all 
horticultural  occupations,  this  has  received  the  least  scientific  at¬ 
tention  in  this  country.  We  shall  be  sorry  to  offend  our  corres¬ 
pondent  a  second  time,  but  we  shall  lay  the  blame  upon  the  sweet 
pea.  The  plant  is  so  attractive  that  we  cannot  help  it. 

In  this  study  of  the  sweet  pea,  I  have  associated  with  me  one 
of  my  students,  who  is  fitting  himself  to  be  a  landscape  gardener. 
Mr.  Wyman  has  made  a  faithful  record  of  our  varieties  during  the 
season,  and  I  am  convinced  that  he  has  good  taste  in  matters  of 
flower-growing.  All  the  detail  work  of  Part  II  is  his. 

The  bulletin  is  submitted  for  publication  under  Chapter  230  of 
the  Laws  of  1895. 


L-  H.  Bailey. 


Tlt-ory/' 


J  ^  ffil  <£*-**-.  $-KJL  rt 

l^-XJLSLtf^&dj  -^-^-JUv_  jd+~*-fr(jL-  .  M^6- 


ua^cJL 


SWEET  PEAS. 

I.  General  Sketch  of  the  Sweet  Pea. 

The  improved  sweet  peas  hold  a  leading  place  in  the  returning 
tide  of  the  good  old  flowers.  The  varieties  now  number  many 
over  a  hundred,  where  but  a  few  years  ago  they  were  less  than  a 
dozen.  The  sweet  pea  has  long  been  a  favorite,  for  it  has  beauty 
of  form  and  color,  attractive  habit,  and  delightful  perfume  ;  it 
needs  only  a  variety  of  colors,  shapes,  sizes  and  seasons  to  perfect 
it  for  the  amateur’s  and  florist’s  use,  and  all  this  has  now  been 
added  to  it.  The  sweet  pea  is  one  of  those  fortunate  flowers 
which  can  never  be  developed  into  stiffness  and  formality,  for  the 
shape  is  irregular  and  the  plant  is  a  free  and  random  grower. 
However  much  the  desire  for  oddity  or  formalism  may  conduce  to 
the  popularizing  of  other  flowers,  it  can  effect  little  with  the  sweet 
pea.  It  is  unique  and  wayward,  and  if  it  once  loses  its  old-time 
freedom,  it  is  no  longer  a  sweet  pea. 

Yet  there  is  a  tendency  to  develop  the  sweet  pea  beyond  its 
characteristic  limits  of  simplicity  and  daintiness.  The  most  ap¬ 
parent  fault  with  some  of  the  novelties,  if  one  may  judge  from  the 
pictures  of  them,  is  their  arrogant  size ;  but,  fortunately,  I  have 
never  seen  such  peas  in  the  garden.  If  I  were  really  assured  that 
I  should  raise  such  amazing  flowers  as  I  see  in  the  catalogues,  I 
should  certainly  never  buy  the  seed  of  them.  I  should  still  give 
my  affections  to  the  modest  Painted  Lady,  whose  presence  still 
graces  the  unconventional  old  gardens.  But  I  do  not  desire  to 
complain  of  the  trade  cuts,  for  I  know  what  a  powerful  magnifier 
a  silver  dollar  is  when  it  is  placed  behind  a  flower ;  and  I  simply 
“make  allowances,”  and  buy.  If  I  get  the  color  and  the  shape 
and  the  texture,  the  degree  of  bigness  is  a  trifling  matter. 
Another  heresy  in  sweet  peas  is  the  desire  for  a  double  flower. 
The  form  of  the  pea  flower  is  its  peculiar  beauty.  The  broad 
trim  standard  is  the  most  perfect  surface  for  the  display  of  color, 


Bulletin  hi. 


170 

and  an  effective  shield  and  foil  for  the  contrasting  pigments  of  the 
wings  and  keel.  When  that  simple  standard  is  displaced  by  two 
or  three,  and  the  shield  becomes  shapeless  and  contorted  and  con¬ 
trary,  the  flower  is  no  longer  the  sweet  pea  of  the  dear  old  gar¬ 
dens,  but  is  apt  to  be  a  mussy  and  impudent  thing.  We  want 
not  bigger  flowers  and  more  petals,  but  we  want  more  sweet  peas. 
That  is,  we  want  more  productive  plants — if  that  is  possible — and 
more  flowers  in  the  cluster.  We  need,  also,  more  very  early  and 
more  very  late  varieties,  a  still  greater  range  in  color,  and  some 
improvement  in  the  texture  of  the  flowers.  But  let  us  keep  to  the 
sweet  pea  type.  Those  contrary  individuals  who  are  always  try¬ 
ing  to  grow  tomatoes  on  potato  plants  and  strawberries  on  black¬ 
berry  bushes,  would  leave  the  world  a  better  legacy  if  they  were 
to  grow  more  tomatoes  on  tomato  plants  and  better  strawberries 
on  strawberry  plants. 

My  reader  wants  to  know  how  these  new  sweet  peas  are  ob¬ 
tained.  The  process  is  simple  enough,  but,  like  most  simple 
things,  it  is  hard  to  learn  and  harder  to  perform.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  part  of  the  process  is  a  well  laid  plan  of  action  on  the  part 
of  the  operator.  He  must  determine  what  improvement  the  plant 
needs.  Then  he  must  study  the  plant  closely  to  learn  its  habit  of 
variation,  and  how  it  adapts  itself  to  the  different  conditions  in 
which  it  is  grown.  He  will  then  put  himself  in  sympathy  with 
the  plant,  simply  trying  to  improve  or  augment  the  little  differ¬ 
ences  which  appear,  and  not  set  himself  squarely  against  the  line 
of  evolution  of  the  plant  by  attempting  the  impossible.  He  has 
a  picture  in  his  mind  of  a  deep  clear  pink  flower.  Very  well ;  he 
goes  through  the  rows  of  his  pink-flowered  varieties  and  marks 
those  plants  whose  flowers  are  nearest  his  ideal.  The  seeds  of 
these  plants  are  separately  saved,  and  sown.  Amongst  the  off¬ 
spring,  he  again  selects,  and  he  again  sows,  taking  care  that  his 
stock  does  not  become  crossed  with  some  other  type.  Presently, 
his  new  color  is  obtained,  the  seeds  have  got  in  the  habit  of 
“  coming  true,  ”  and  the  brood  is  given  a  new  name  and  intro¬ 
duced  to  the  trade.  More  often,  however,  the  operator  has  no 
distinct  ideal  in  his  mind,  but  he  watches  his  plants  carefully  and 
every  marked  departure  or  “  sport  ”  from  the  type  is  saved  and 
sown.  From  such  sports  the  greater  part  of  our  novelties,  of  all 


Sweet  Peas. 


171 


annual  plants,  have  come. 

The  sports  are  frequent 
enough,  but  it  requires  rare 
judgment  to  distinguish 
those  which  will  likely 
perpetuate  themselves,  and 
to  carry  on  the  subsequent 
selection  by  means  of  which 
they  are  freed  of  their  im¬ 
purities  or  the  tendency 
still  to  sport.  If  de¬ 
sired  variations  do  not  ap¬ 
pear,  then  the  operator  may 
endeavor  to  start  it  off  by  a 
radical  change  of  soil  or 
treatment,  or  possibly  by 
crossing.  All  this  means 
that  the  cultivator  must  be¬ 
come  intimately  familiar 
with  his  subject  before  he  can  expect  to  make  much  headway  in 
the  origination  of  novelties.  So  it  has  come  that  the  modern  im¬ 
proved  plants  owe  their  development  largely  to  one  or  two  careful 
and  patient  persons  in  each  generation. 

The  sweet  pea  has  had  but  one  genius.  He  is  Henry  Eckford, 
who  for  twenty  years  has  given  his  attention  to  this  plant  upon 
his  garden-farm  at  Wem,  in  Shropshire,  England.  He  has  given 
us  the  greater  number  of  our  best  improved  varieties.  ‘  ‘  When 
I  first  took  up  the  sweet  pea,”  he  writes,  “  there  were  six  or  eight 
distinct  varieties  in  cultivation,  and  experts  in  the  art,  as  far  as  I 
could  learn,  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  could  not  be 
further  improved,  and  in  the  first  two  or  three  generations  of  the 
work  it  appeared  a  fair  conclusion  ;  but  I  should  say  that  I  had 
been  for  many  years  working  on  the  improvement  of  various 
florist  flowers,  and  which  had  proved  so  eminently  successful  that 
a  first  rebuff  did  not  deter  me  from  further  attempts.”  In  our 
own  country,  the  work  has  now  been  taken  up  by  Rev.  W.  T. 
Hutchins,  of  Indian  Orchard,  Massachusetts  ;  and  it  has  remain¬ 
ed  for  him  to  make  the  first  important  attempt  to  write  any  ac¬ 
count  of  the  modern  sweet  pea.  His  booklet,  “  All  About  Sweet 


1 


73 — Henry  Eckford. 


IJ2 


Bulletin  hi. 


Peas,”  appeared  in  1894;  and  he  has  been  and  is  still  the  most 
devoted  grower  and  champion  of  sweet  peas  upon  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  This  is  not  saying  that  he  is  the  largest  grower,  for 
this  honor  is  held  by  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.,  of  California,  whose 
crop  of  sweet  peas  covered  250  acres  in  1895,  and  this  firm  has 
also  produced  a  number  of  excellent  varieties.  But  Mr.  Hutch¬ 
ins  is  an  amateur  sweet  pea  critic,  whilst  Mr.  Morse  grows  the 
seeds  for  market.  W.  Atlee  Burpee  &  Co. ,  of  Philadelphia,  were 
amongst  the  first  retail  seedsmen  to  take  up  the  sweet  pea.  The 
first  sweet  pea  show  of  any  note  in  this  country  was  held  under 
the  inspiration  of  Mr.  Hutchins  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1893. 

Although  this  great  improvement  in  the  sweet  pea  is  so  recent, 
the  plant  has  been  long  in  cultivation.  It  is  native  to  Italy,  and 
was  introduced  into  England  about  1700.  Its  Latin  name, 
Lathyrus  odoratus,  was  given  by  Linnaeus  in  1753.  In  1754, 
Philip  Miller,  a  famous  English  garden-botanist,  speaks  of  two 
distinct  varieties  in  the  fourth  edition  of  his  “Gardener’s  Dic¬ 
tionary”:  “One  of  these  has  pale-red  Flowers,  which  is  com¬ 
monly  called  by  the  Gardeners,  Painted-lady  Peas  ;  the  other 
hath  intire  white  Flowers  :  both  these  may  be  allowed  a  Place  in 
the  Borders  of  the  Flower-garden,  for  the  sake  of  Variety.”  Wil¬ 
liam  Curtis  had  a  colored  plate  of  a  purple  form  in  his  “Botanical 
Magazine”  in  1788,  and  speaks  as  follows  of  the  plant: 
‘  ‘  There  is  scarcely  a  plant  more  generally  cultivated  than  the 
Sweet  Pea,  and  no  wonder,  since  with  the  most  delicate  blossoms 
it  unites  an  agreeable  fragrance.  Several  varieties  of  this  plant 
are  enumerated  by  authors,  but  general  cultivation  extends  to 
two  only,  the  one  with  blossoms  perfectly  white,  the  other  white 
and  rose-colored,  commonly  called  the  Painted  Lady  Pea.  *  *  *  * 
They  have  both  been  introduced  since  the  time  of  Parkinson  and 
Evelyn.” 

In  America,  M’ Mahon  mentions  the  sweet  pea  amongst  his 
“  hardy  annual  flower-seeds,”  in  his  “  Gardener’s  Calendar,”  in 
1806  He  knew  five  varieties,  as  follows  : 

Var.  albis  [white]. 

Var.  carneo,  old  Painted  Lady. 

Var.  roseo,  new  Painted  Lady  or  Scarlet. 

Var.  cseruleis  [blue]. 

Var.  atropurpureo  [dark  purple]. 


SwKKT  P^AS. 


173 


Thomas  Bridgeman,  in  his  “Young  Gardener’s  Assistant,” 
1838,  mentions  “  Sweet  Peas,  of  various  descriptions  and  colours. 
Lathyrus  odoratus,  var.  alba,  purpurea,  rosea,  striata,  etc.”  Ed¬ 
ward  Sayers,  in  “  American  Flower  Garden  Companion,”  1838, 
speaks  of  sweet  peas,  “  purple,  scarlet,  white,  pink,  pink  and 
white  or  painted  lady.”  Buist,  of  Philadelphia,  writes  that  they 
are  “  well  deserving  of  culture,”  and  says  that  there  are  “  many 
varieties,”  in  his  “  Flower  Garden  Directory,”  1845.  Yet  they 
could  not  have  been  very  widely  grown  at  this  time,  for  Eley’s 
‘  ‘  American  Florist,  ’ ’  which  appeared  in  the  same  year  at  Hartford , 
does  not  mention  them.  In  1851,  Breck  writes  in  his  “  Book  of 
Flowers  ”  that  sweet  peas  are  “  deservedly  one  of  the  most  popu¬ 
lar  annuals  which  enrich  the  flower-garden.  The  varieties  are, 
white,  rose,  scarlet,  purple,  black,  and  variegated.  Every  variety 
should  be  sown  by  itself  in  circles  about  a  foot  in  diameter, 
three  or  four  feet  from  any  other  plant.”  The  custom  of  giving 
designative  personal  or  descriptive  names  to  varieties  of  an¬ 
nual  flowers  was  scarcely  known  forty  or  fifty  years  ago,  and  we 
do  not  know  just  what  types  were  then  in  cultivation.  The  loose 
vernacular  or  Latin  names  were  used  rather  more  for  groups  or 
strains  of  color  than  for  any  particular  minor  variation  as  the 
names  are  in  these  days,  when  we  have  so  greatly  refined  the 
choice  and  descriptions  of  garden  plants.  The  first  distinct  note 
of  the  recent  popularizing  and  diffusion  of  named  sweet  peas  in 
this  country  came  in  1889  with  the  introduction  of  the  Blanche 
Ferry,  which  is  an  improvement  of  the  old  Painted  Lady,  and 
which  is  still  one  of  our  best  varieties  when  grown  from  carefully 
selected  seeds.  This  variety  was  found  in  a  garden  in  northern 
New  York  by  W.  W.  Tracy,  of  the  firm  of  D.  M.  Ferry  &  Co. 
C.  L.  Allen  writes  as  follows  of  its  evolution,  in  “  American  Ag¬ 
riculturist,”  for  September  7,  1895  :  “  The  farmer’s  wife  had  for 

years  been  in  the  habit  of  saving  her  own  seeds,  starting  with  the 
old  and  well-known  Painted  Lady.  In  the  heavy  loam  of  her 
garden,  and  with  the  much  shorter  season  of  growth  there  than 
in  Europe,  this  made  a  more  rapid  growth,  and  annually  became 
more  dwarf  in  habit.  At  the  same  time  it  became  a  “  cropper,  ”  — 
that  is,  all  the  flowers,  that  in  other  climates  would  have  a  much 
longer  period  in  which  to  develop,  here  appeared  nearly  all  at  the 


174 


Bulletin  hi. 


same  time  if  not  cut.  Thus  in  a  few  years  a  dwarf  and  very  free 
flowering  type  was  established,  which  remains  constant  in  our 
country.  The  success  that  greeted  the  introduction  of  this  var¬ 
iety,  and  the  fact  of  its  having  been 
developed  here,  stimulated  our  grow¬ 
ers  to  extra  exertion,  not  only  to  grow 
sweet  peas  as  a  crop,  but  to  watch  for 
variations  which  a  change  of  climate  is 

sure  to  pro¬ 
duce.  The  re¬ 
sult  is  we  have 
found  that 
sweet  peas  can 
be  about  as 
cheaply  grown 
here  as  the  com¬ 
mon  field  pea. 


Tangier  Scarlet  Pea  (  Lathy rus  Tin- 
gitanus).  Half  size. 


But  more  important  still  is  the  fact  'that  all 
our  well-known  sorts  are  more  prolific  when 
the  seeds  have  been  grown  here.  The  in¬ 
troduction  of  new  varieties,  as  well  as  new 
types,  is  one  of  the  marked  features  of  our  industry.” 

Before  going  further,  the  reader  should  be  reminded  that  there 


Sweet  Peas. 


i75 


are  two  other  closely  related  species  of  peas  in  cultivation  for  their 
flowers,  and  one  of  them,  the  Tangier  Scarlet,  is  even  called  a 
sweet  pea.  This  Tangier  pea  is  Lathyrus  Tingitanus  (Fig.  74). 
It  has  been  in  cultivation  longer  than  the  sweet  pea,  having  been 
introduced  into  England  as  early  1680.  Curtis  figures  it  in  the 

“Botanical  Magazine”  in  1 790, 
and  speaks  o  it  as  follows  : 

‘  ‘  The  Tangier  Pea,  a  native  of 
Morocco,  cannot  boast  the 
agreeable  scent,  or  variety  of 
colours  of  the  sweet  pea  ;  nor 
does  it  continue  so  long  in 
flower  ;  nevertheless  there  is  a 
richness  in  the  colour  of  its 
blossoms,  which  entitles  it  to 
a  place  in  the  gardens  of  the 
curious.”  It  bears  an  attractive 
purple  flower,  with  a  large 
standard  and  small  wings,  and 
blooms  earlier  than  the  true 
sweet  peas.  It  is  also  known 
for  its  very  narrow  and  long 
leaflets,  generally  2 -flowered 
peduncles,  and  long,  flat,  hair¬ 
less  pods. 

The  other  pea  to  which 
I  wish  to  refer  is  Lathy¬ 
rus  latifolius  (Fig.  75),  the 
perennial  or  everlasting  pea. 
This  plant,  a  native  of  Europe, 

75. — Perennial  or  Everlasting  Pea.  ^as  ^een  l°n£>  in  cultivation, 
(Lathyrus  latifolius.)  although  it  appears  never  to 

have  received  special  attention, 
since  there  are  only  three  or  four  well  marked  varieties  of  it.  Its 
leading  forms  are  simply  known  as  the  red  and  the  white.  It  is 
at  once  distinguished  from  the  sweet  pea,  aside  from  its  perennial 
nature,  by  the  many-flowered  clusters,  the  very  large  standard, 
the  thick  and  stiff  texture  of  the  scentless  flowers,  the  broad 
and  strongly  veined  leaflets,  and  the  broad  hairless  pods.  It  is 


V  %  ; 


176 


Bulletin  hi. 


an  excellent  hardy  plant  for  a  mixed  border  or  for  clambering 
over  rocks  or  other  low  objects.  I  have  several  plants  of  it  grow¬ 
ing  against  a  tennis  screen,  and  they  bloom  most  profusely  in  late 
spring  and  early  summer.  It  is  a  profuse  seeder,  and  the  pods 
should  not  be  allowed  to  form  if  continued  bloom  is  desired.  It 
propagates  readily  by  seeds  and  by  cuttings. 

Where  and  How  to  Grow  Sweet  Peas. 

The  sweet  pea  is  such  an  unconventional  and  domestic  flower 
that  it  is  unsuited  to  formal  beds  or  to  an  obtrusive  position  on 
the  lawn.  It  is  one  of  those  flowers  which  we  enjoy  the  more  if 
it  is  somewhat  hidden  from  the  public  view,  and  is  restricted  to 
the  more  private  and  personal  parts  of  the  grounds.  It  is  preemi¬ 
nently  a  flower  for  the  back  yard.  A  rear  or  side  border,  against 
a  fence  or  other  background,  is  a  good  position  for  it.  The  plant 
is  always  attractive  when  seen  clambering  over  bushes,  but  it 
rarely  thrives  well  when  planted  close  under  shrubbery  unles  it  is 
grown  in  a  box  or  large  pot  of  rich  earth  plunged  into  the  ground, 
to  remove  it  from  the  competition  of  the  roots.  If  one  is  to  raise 
a  considerable  quantity  of  sweet  peas,  they  may  be  planted  in 
rows  and  allowed  to  run  up  a  screen  of  chicken-wire  ;  or,  if  one 
can  take  the  pains  to  tie  them  occasionally,  a  trellis  may  be  made 
,of  four  or  five  strands  of  fence-wire,  like  a  half-size  grape  trellis. 
On  good  soil  most  varieties  will  reach  a  height  of  four  or  five  feet. 

If  sweet  peas  are  to  continue  to  bloom  throughout  the  season, 
the  soil  must  be  rich  and  capable  of  holding  moisture.  A  thin, 
dry  soil  will  not  grow  good  peas.  In  light  soils  it  is  well  to  apply 
a  liberal  dressing  of  manure  to  the  soil  in  the  fall,  plowing  it 
under  very  early  in  the  spring  ;  and  in  addition  to  this,  a  dressing 
of  some  concentrated  fertilizer  in  the  spring  will  be  useful.  But 
the  chief  thing  is  moisture.  The  land  must  be  well  and  deeply 
fitted,  to  increase  its  water-holding  capacity.  It  is  ordinarily  ad¬ 
vised  to  till  the  soil  frequently  after  the  peas  are  planted  until  they 
begin  to  bloom,  at  which  time  all  cultivation  should  cease.  I  do 
not  believe  that  this  is  safe  advice.  The  land  becomes  hard  by 
constant  tramping  of  visitors  when  the  plants  are  in  bloom,  and 
the  evaporation  from  the  soil  is  thereby  greatly  increased.  A 
heavy  mulch  of  straw  or  litter  may  be  placed  on  the  soil  when  the 


f 


Swket  Peas.  177 

plants  begin  to  bloom,  to  conserve  the  moisture  ;  but  if  the  rows 
are  far  enough  apart  to  allow  of  it,  a  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  all 
through  the  season  with  a  horse  or  hand  cultivator  will  be  found 
to  be  the  most  efficient  conservator  of  moisture.  The  plants  also 
endure  dry  weather  better  when  thinly  planted.  We  like  to  have 
the  plants  six  or  seven  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Our  own  test  in 
1895  comprised  four  rows  each  150  feet  long,  and  three  feet  asun¬ 
der,  in  heavy  clay  loam.  The  vines  were  trained  on  five  horizon¬ 
tal  wires,  making  a  trellis  three  or  four  feet  high.  The  land  was 
stirred  with  a  horse  and  cultivator  about  every  week  all  summer 
long.  The  result  was,  that  although  we  had  a  prolonged  drought, 
we  had  sweet  peas  in  adundance  from  early  July  until  October. 

Deep  planting  also  enables  the  sweet  pea  to  resist  dry  weather. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  furrows  four  or  six  inches  deep,  drop 
the  peas  in  the  bottom  and  cover  an  inch  or  so.  Then,  as  the 
plants  grow,  the  earth  is  gradually  filled  in  about  the  plants,  un¬ 
til  the  furrow  is  full.  If  there  is  danger  that  these  furrows  will 
fill  with  water,  and  hold  it  for  some  time,  the  peas  should  be 
planted  more  shallow  and  the  furrows  filled  at  once.  Early 
planting  is  also  desirable.  In  this  latitude  we  can  plant  as  early 
as  the  first  of  April,  on  warm  soil, — that  is,  a  month  before  hard 
frosts  have  ceased.  The  sweet  pea  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  the  seed 
is  not  injured  by  much  cold  weather.  I  have  known  good  results 
from  planting  seeds  in  the  fall,  but  this  practice  is  unreliable  in 
the  northern  states.  I  doubt  if  it  can  be  recommended  with  full 
confidence  north  of  Norfolk.  But  even  if  the  seeds  are  got  in  late 
and  shallow,  the  plants  may  be  carried  through  by  a  little  extra 
attention  to  tillage.  Our  test  of  1895,  of  which  I  have  spoken, 
was  inaugurated  so  late  that  we  thought  it  inadvisable  to  delay 
matters  by  deep  planting.  So  we  planted  the  seed  about  two  to 
three  inches  deep,  on  the  last  day  of  April,  and  our  sweet  peas 
were  the  admiration  of  the  community.  If  there  are  any  secrets 
in  the  growing  of  sweet  peas,  they  are  these  :  A  rich,  well-pre¬ 
pared  soil,  early  and  rather  deep  planting,  picking  off  the  pods  as 
soon  as  they  form,  and  the  judicious  selecting  of  seed  and  varie¬ 
ties. 

There  is  some  inquiry  as  to  the  forcing  of  sweet  peas.  Our  ex¬ 
perience  in  this  matter  is  very  limited.  It  is  generally  thought  to 


178 


Buixktin  III. 


be  best  to  sow  the  peas  early  in  winter  in  a  cool  house  amongst 
other  things — as  carnations — and  let  them  take  their  time  for 
growing.  When  the  sunny  days  come  in  March  and  April,  they 
may  be  expected  to  bloom. 

The  Varieties  of  Szveet  Peas. 

All  the  foregoing  requirements  are  easy  enough  to  meet  save  the 
last, — the  selection  of  varieties.  The  kinds  are  now  so  numerous 
and  so  various  that  the  amateur  may  be  perplexed  in  the  choice. 
Of  course  much  depends  upon  the  taste  of  the  grower.  One  should 
always  be  sure,  also,  to  have  enough.  The  beauty  of  flowers  lies 
largely  in  the  generosity  and  profusion  of  them. 

The  grower  should  also  have  a  good  variety  in  color  and  shape, 
and  this  is  best  obtained  by  purchasing  the  best  named  varieties, 
and  making  the  mixture  to  suit.  If  I’ were  confined  to  six  varie¬ 
ties,  I  think  that  I  should  choose  the  Improved  Painted  Lady  or 
a  pure  type  of  Blanche  Ferry,  Apple  Blossom,  Emily  Henderson, 
Mrs.  Gladstone,  Butterfly,  and  Countess  of  Radnor.  But  there 
are  twenty  varieties  which  even  the  average  flower-lover  may 
grow  with  great  satisfaction.  F.  Schuyler  Mathews,  in  his  “  Beau¬ 
tiful  Flower  Garden,”  (1894),  speaks  as  follows  of  his  method  of 
growing  sweet  peas  and  his  choice  of  varieties.  I  am  glad  to 
transcribe  his  account,  because  Mr.  Mathews  regards  the  subject 
from  the  artist’s  standpoint.  “  My  own  method  of  arranging 
sweet  pea  vines  is  confined  to  a  fence  or  hedge  row,  which  I  create 
out  of  chicken-yard  wire  and  rustic  posts.  This  fence  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  a  thing  of  beauty,  and  a  barrier  against  the 
roaming  cow,  who,  by  the  way,  frequently  takes  toll  in  the  shape 
of  a  fine  bunch  of  my  favorite  Boreattons.  The  varieties  which 
are  most  attractive  in  color  are : 

Boreatton,  red-purple  and  violet. 

Mrs.  Sanky,  white. 

Lottie  Eckford,  white,  blue-edged. 

Orange  Prince,  scarlet  pink  and  rose  pink. 

Blanche  Ferry,  pink  and  white. 

Cardinal,  red-crimson  and  red-scarlet. 

Grand  Blue,  ultramarine-purple  and  purple-crimson. 

Primrose,  cream-yellow. 


Sweet  Peas. 


179 


. With  all  deference  to  a  perfect  harmony  of 

color,  I  may  add  that  there  is  really  very  little  discord  to  be  found 
in  an  indiscriminate  mixture  of  all  varieties.” 

A  more  detailed  account  of  the  merits  of  the  various  sweet  peas 
which  we  have  grown  will  be  found  in  the  descriptive  list  in  Part 
II.  But,  after  all,  it  does  not  matter  so  much,  as  I  have  said, 
what  varieties  one  plants  as  it  does  that  he  plants,  and  plants 
generously.  One  can  scarcely  obtain  such  a  profusion  of  color 
and  fragrance  throughout  the  season  from  any  other  flower.  Mr. 
W.  N.  Craig  contributes  to  “Garden  and  Forest,”  the  following 
record  of  the  productiveness  of  sweet  peas  :  “We  have  never 
tested  individual  plants,  but  last  year  we  kept  a  record  of  the 
spikes  cut  from  a  row  sixty  feet  long,  partly  composed  of  theEck- 
ford  varieties  and  partly  of  good  mixed  sorts.  The  first  flowers 
were  cut  on  June  nth,  and  the  last  on  October  the  20th.  The 
number  gathered  for  each  month  was  as  follows  :  June,  2,000  ; 
July,  17,600;  August,  18,000;  September,  6,400;  October, 
3,500  ;  total,  47,500.  Besides  this,  large  numbers  went  to  seed, 
and  probably  the  row  would  have  yielded  60,000  spikes  if  it  had 
been  carefully  picked  over.  ’  ’ 

The  varieties  of  sweet  peas  with  which  Mr.  Eckford  began  his 
work,  as  given  by  Mr.  Hutchins,  are  seven,  as  follows  :  Eight 
Blue  and  Purple,  Painted  Eady,  Common  White,  Scarlet,  Scarlet 

Striped,  Dark  Striped,  Black.  Most  or  all  of 
these  Mr.  Hutchins  would  now  discard  ;  and 
he  also  adds  (1894)  the  following  to  the  list  of 
those  which  are  superseded  by  better  varieties: 
Adonis,  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  Vesuvius, 
The  Queen,  Carmen  Sylva,  Queen  of  England, 
Empress  of  India,  Isa  Eckford,  Bronze  Prince, 
Black,  Purple  Brown  Striped,  Scarlet  Invinci¬ 
ble.  Yet  several  of  these  varieties  are  still  fav¬ 
orites  with  us  ;  and  for  myself,  I  should  place 
Empress  of  India  in  a  list  of  my  second  or  third 
half-dozen.  This  simply  illustrates  the  old 
aphorism  that  there  is  no  accounting  for  tastes. 
7 b— The  Sweet  Pea  So  long  as  one  likes  the  varieties  which  he 
flower.  grows  it  does  not  matter  what  names  they  bear. 


1 


i8o 


Buu,ktin  hi. 


Before  going  further  the  reader  should  stop  long  enough  to  no¬ 
tice  the  architecture  of  the  sweet  pea  flower  (Fig.  76).  The 
broad  orbicular  upper  petal,  s,  is  the  standard,  banner,  vexillum, 
or  shield  ;  the  two  mid-sized  pieces,  w,  are  the  wings,  and  these 
close  over  the  smallest  central  portion,  comprised  of  two  conniv- 
ent  parts,  called  the  keel,  k.  When  the  sweet  pea  attempts  to 
become  double  the  duplication  usually  appears  in  the  standard, 
which,  instead  of  comprising  but  a  single  piece,  may  be  formed 
of  two  or  three  or  four  petals.  This  is  well  shown  in  Fig.  77,  in 
which  the  expanded  flower  is  seen  to  have  three  standards. 
There  is  no  double  variety  of  sweet  pea,  but  most  of  the  im¬ 
proved  types  tend 
to  duplicate  the 
standard,  and 
some  varieties  will 
give  from  twenty 
to  fifty  per  cent, 
of  these  monstros¬ 
ities,  when  grown 
upon  strong  soil. 
In  other  words, 
there  is  a  general 
and  cumulative 
tendency  towards 
doubling,  as  the 
species  is  improv¬ 
ed,  but  the  seeds 
of  double  flowers 
of  any  particular 
variety  do  not 
necessarily  pro¬ 
duce  double  flowers.  There  is  every  reason  to  expect,  however, 
that  the  time  will  soon  come  when  double  peas  will  reproduce 
themselves  as  reliably  as  many  other  annual  flowers  do  ;  but 
unless  the  product  is  more  shapely  than  anything  which  I  have 
yet  seen,  I  shall  be  ready  to  quit  sweet  peas  when  I  am  obliged 
to  grow  double  ones. 

Another  word  may  be  said  upon  the  size  of  the  sweet  pea  flower. 


77. — Double  pea.  The  Splendor. 


Sweet  Peas. 


181 


78. — Three  typical  sizes  of  sweet  pea  flowers. 

The  accompanying  engraving  (Fig.  78)  shows  three  types  of 
peas,  exactly  natural  size.  All  illustrations  of  objects  which  have 
depth  and  rotundity  in  them,  look  smaller  than  the  objects  which 
they  represent,  until  the  eye  becomes  trained  to  seethe  perspective 
and  the  solidity  in  the  picture.  The  small  flower,  on  the  left,  is 
the  Rising  Sun.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  sweet  peas  of  the  last 
generation.  The  flower  on  the  right  is  Etna,  and  is  of  good  size, 
as  sweet  peas  go.  The  middle  flower  is  Dorothy  Tennant,  and  is 
one  of  the  modern  grandiflora  type.  The  flower  is  large  enough 
for  a  good  sweet  pea,  in  my  opinion,  although  it  might  be  some¬ 
what  enlarged  without  losing  its  daintiness.  Yet  this  flower 
measures  only  an  inch  and  a  quarter  across,  whilst  a  catalogue 
illustration  before  me  has  them  two  inches  across.  I  do  not 
deny  that  such  peas  are  possible,  with  high  culture  and  pruning, 
but  it  is  a  fair  question  if  they  are  desirable.  The  Apple  Blos¬ 
som,  Fig.  80,  is  one  of  the  grandiflora  type,  a  development  from 
the  old  Painted  Eady,  but  the  illustration  is  the  merest  trifle  over¬ 
size.  All  the  other  pictures  of  varieties  in  this  bulletin,  except 
Fig.  74,  are  exactly  natural  size,  and  are  made  from  flowers 
grown  in  ordinary  conditions,  in  too  thick  planting. 

Along  with  the  increasing  tendency  towards  doubling  of  the 
flowers,  the  sweet  pea  has  also  developed  a  tendency  to  enlarge  the 
flower  cluster.  This  often  comes  as  a  result  of  fasciation  or  ab¬ 
normal  broadening  of  the  stem.  As  many  as  eight  perfect  flowers 
were  developed  in  some  clusters  of  Apple  Blossom  in  our  planta- 


182 


Bulletin  iii. 


tion  last  year,  with  no  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  flowers,  whilst 
the  normal  number  is  only  three.  Fig.  80  shows  this  augmenta¬ 
tion  of  the  flower  cluster.  Like  the  doubling,  this  enlargement  of 
the  cluster  is  not  perpetuated  by  seeds,  but  it  is  not  too  much  to 
expect  that  a  permanent  modification  in  this  direction  may  come 
in  the  future. 

Another  interesting  development  of  the  sweet  pea  is  the  recent 
appearing  of  dwarf  or  non -climbing  forms.  These  have  appeared 
in  Germany,  England  and  California.  This  is  one  of  those  pecu¬ 
liar  accumulative  effects  of  domestication  which  is  apt  to  appear 
somewhat  simultaneously  in  widely  separated  regions,  evidently 
largely  because  an  equal  degree  of  domestication  tends  to  produce 

similar  effects  in  any  num¬ 
ber  of  regions.  The  same 
thing  is  illustrated  in  the 
dwarf  Lima  beans  (see  our 
Bulletin  87),  and  it  tran¬ 
spired  long  ago  in  the  com¬ 
mon  garden  beans.  The 
California  dwarf,  which  is 
introduced  this  spring 
(1896)  by  Burpee  as  Cupid, 
was  found  in  a  field  of  peas 
in  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.’s 
plantations  in  1893.  There 
was  a  single  plant  of  it. 
This  original  plant  was 
strong  and  apparently  nor¬ 
mal  in  every  way  except  in 
its  diminished  size.  In 
1895,  Morse  &  Co.  grew 
seven  acres  of  this  Cupid, 
and  all  the  plants  came  true 
to  seed.  We  have  not 
grown  the  plant,  but  Bur¬ 
pee  pulled  up  two  entire 
full-grown  plants  and  sent  them  to  us  last  year.  One  of  them 


79  —  Two  types  of  flowers.  Alba  mag- 
nifica  ( above ),  and  Emily  Henderson 
(below). 


Sweet  Peas.  183 

measured  seven  inches  high,  and  the  other  eight  inches.  The 
flowers  were  of  medium  size,  pure  white,  and  of  good  form. 

It  is  difficult  to  construct  any  classification  of  the  varieties  of 
sweet  peas.  The  best  scheme  for  popular  use  is  thought  to  be 
one  founded  on  the  color  of  the  flowers.  Yet  there  are  various 
well-marked  types  of  form  in  the  sweet  pea  flower,  which  should 
be  recognized  in  classifying  them.  The  old-time  type  has  a  broad 
plane  standard,  as  in  Apple  Blossom  (Fig.  80),  and  Countess  of 
Radnor  (Fig.  72).  In  many  of  the  recent  varieties,  the  standard 
is  variously  curled  or  rolled.  One  of  the  best  of  these  newer 
forms  is  that  in  which  the  standard  is  inrolled  or  hooded.  This 
is  shown  to  perfection  in  the  dainty  and  exquisite  Butterfly  (Fig. 
82,  best  seen  in  the  central  flower  and  in  the  uppermost  flower  at 
the  right).  An  opposite  form  of  standard  is  the  reversed  or 
revolute,  well  shown  in  Imperial  Blue  (Fig.  83).  The  form  of 
the  flower  also  varies  when  seen  sidewise.  Consider  Fig.  79. 
The  upper  flowers  are  Alba  Magnifica,  in  which  the  standard  and 
wings  stand  nearly  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  therefore 
present  a  want  of  connection  and  homogeneity  which  is  displeas¬ 
ing  to  many  persons.  In  the  lower  spray,  which  is  Emily  Hen¬ 
derson,  this  fault  does  not  exist,  and  the  flowers  present  a  more 
united  and  shapely  effect. 

A  Seedman' s  Account . 

The  reader  will  be  interested  to  know  something  of  the  methods 
and  trials  of  seed-growers  in  growing  and  breeding  varieties.  The 
following  account  is  written  by  Mr.  Waldo  Rohnert,  one  of  my 
former  students,  who  is  associated  with  C.  C.  Morse  &.  Co.,  of 
California  : 

‘  ‘  Eight  or  nine  years  ago  the  sweet  pea  was  little  known  as  a 
garden  flower.  It  then  had  little  merit  to  attract  public  atten¬ 
tion.  At  that  time,  Mr.  Eckford  had  done  considerable  work  and 
his  efforts  and  perseverance  were  becoming  apparent.  From 
the  ordinary  type  and  colors  he  has  improved  the  flower  to  its 
present  high  standard.  Cross-fertilization  and  selection,  keeping 
the  size,  form,  substance  and  color  constantly  in  mind,  have  had 
a  wonderful  effect.  We  depend  somewhat  upon  sports  for  new 
varieties,  however.  As  each  variety  is  brought  up  to  the  gran  di¬ 
floral  type,  its  liability  to  sport  is  also  increased. 


184 


Bulletin  hi. 


“  As  the  six  new  varieties  of  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.  have  resulted 
from  sporting  and  selections,  you  may  be  interested  in  their  his¬ 
tory.  America  is  a  sport  of  Queen  of  the  Isles.  It  was  selected 
to  a  deep  crimson-scarlet  upon  a  white  ground,  large  size,  good 
substance,  bold  and  upright  standard.  It  runs  about  ninety-five 
per  cent.  true.  Its  deep  and  contrasting  color  gives  it  a  striking 
appearance.  Ramona  is  a  selection  out  of  Blushing  Beauty.  It 
is  a  delicate  pink  stripe  upon  creamy- white  ground,  perfectly 
hooded  form,  good  substance  and  grandiflora  size  ;  very  effective. 
Oddity  was  found  in  a  mixed  lot,  so  its  parentage  is  unknown.  It 
is  odd  because  wings  and  standard  are  peculiarly  hooded,  a  fea¬ 
ture  new  in  the  sweet  pea.  It  comes  perfectly  true  from  seed. 
Juanita  is  a  selection  out  of  Countess  of  Radnor.  It  has  a  deli¬ 
cate  appearance  and  as  its  parent  is  a  back-slider,  only  apart  of  it 
comes  true.  Grey  Friar  also  adds  a  departure.  Both  wings  and 
standard  are  peculiarly  shaded  or  marbled-purplish  mauve.  It  is 
a  selection  out  of  Senator  and  has  taken  some  time  and  critical 
selection  to  bring  it  to  its  present  standard.  The  vine  is  vigorous, 
and,  as  a  rule,  has  four  flowers  to  the  truss. 

“The  professional  growers  of  sweet  pea  seed  have  a  good  deal 
of  trouble  to  contend  with,  in  the  matter  of  keeping  their  stock 
pure.  Some  varieties  are  very  hard  to  keep  true  to  type,  while 
other  varieties  almost  take  care  of  themselves.  As  a  rule,  nearly 
all  small-flowered  varieties  come  true,  while  the  grandiflora  types 
run  off  more  or  less. 

“Countess  of  Radnor  and  Dorothy  Tennant  are  very  hard  to 
keep  true.  Two  years  of  careless  work  in  growing  these  varieties 
will  run  them  into  stripes  and  poor  forms.  Her  Majesty  reverts 
to  Princess  Victoria  ;  Duke  of  Clarence  runs  into  Her  Majesty 
and  Dorothy  Tennant ;  Mrs.  Eckford  runs  into  Primrose  and  poor 
whites,  while  Primrose  will  lose  its  primrose  effect ;  Mrs.  Sankey 
runs  into  poor  Demon  Queen  ;  Mrs.  Joseph  Chamberlain  passes 
into  Ovid  and  weak  stripes  ;  Stanley  goes  into  Boreatton  and  to 
Boreatton  with  purple  wings  ;  Peach  Blossom  varies  into  Isa  Eck¬ 
ford  ;  Blanche  Burpee  into  Mrs.  Eckford ;  Mrs.  Gladstone  into 
pink  stripes  ;  Emily  Henderson  has  strong  light  blue  and  pur¬ 
ple  and  Blanche  Ferry  tendencies ;  Apple  Blossom  runs  into 
Splendor ;  Royal  Robe  into  Ovid  and  delicate  pinks  ;  Captain 


Sweet  Peas  185 

of  the  Blues  into  Monarch  and  stripes  ;  Monarch  into  Duke  of 
Clarence  and  stripes;  Waverly  into  Apple  Blossom. 

“There  are  now  about  one  hundred  distinct  varieties  of  sweet 
peas  and  the  question  arises  if  the  limit  of  improvement  in  color 
and  form  is  not  already  reached.  In  what  direction  are  the  grow¬ 
ers  working  to  keep  the  public  interested  in  this  flower  ?  In  the 
first  place,  all  the  present  varieties  could  be  improved  by  having 
four  flowers  on  each  truss.  The  clear  blue,  lemon-yellow  and 
fiery  scarlet  varieties  are  still  to  come.  A  flower  having  a  blue 
standard  with  white  wings,  to  correspond  with  Blanche  Ferry, 
would  be  a  decided  acquisition.  Such  varieties  as  Meteor,  Eady 
Beaconsfield  and  Blanche  Ferry  should  be  brought  up  to  the 
grandiflora  type.  New  ranges  of  colors,  as  the  apricot  shades, 
are  not  out  of  the  question.  Even  the  size  of  the  present  grandi¬ 
flora  type  could  be  increased  to  a  larger  and  bolder  flower.  Our 
work  with  the  sweet  pea  is  really  only  fairly  begun. 

“One  feature  which  should  be  impressed  upon  the  public  is 
that  there  are  types  of  form  in  the  sweet  pea.  We  should  class¬ 
ify  the  varieties  into  forms,  not  into  colors.  When  we  speak  of  a 
certain  color  we  convey  but  a  vague  meaning.  From  a  descrip¬ 
tion  of  color,  no  two  persons  receive  the  same  impression. 

“  In  my  experience,  crossing  has  produced  some  unlooked  for 
results.  Cupid  on  Venus  produced  a  weak  Painted  Lady  of  no 
value.  Penzance  on  Venus  has  produced  an  exceptionally  fine  pink 
of  solid  color  and  good  form.  It  corresponds  with  Royal  Robe, 
but  is  larger  and  holds  form  and  color  better.  Ovid  on  Venus 
had  the  same  result,  except  that  the  color  was  a  trifle  stronger. 
Stanley  on  Venus  produced  a  Boreatton  ;  Ignea  on  Venus  produced 
something  close  to  Princess  Victoria  ;  Bronze  King  and  Primrose 
on  Venus  made  a  weak  pink  of  no  value ;  Beaconsfield  on  Venus 
produced  Beaconsfield.  The  conclusion  from  these  crosses  is  that 
the  stronger  color  predominates  in  the  cross.  We  cannot  forsee 
what  the  result  will  be. 

“Of  Eckford’s  1895  novelties,  Blanche  Burpee  certainly  takes 
the  lead.  It  is  the  finest  white  to  date.  While  Emily  Henderson 
may  be  considered  a  little  purer  in  color  and  on  account  of  its 
free  blooming  habits,  a  better  variety  for  florists,  yet  it  does  not 
possess  the  size  or  gracefulness  of  the  Blanche  Burpee.  The 


i86 


Bulletin  hi. 


stiffness  or  formality  has  always  been  against  the  Emily  Hender¬ 
son.  Eliza  Eckford  comes  .second  in  value  of  Eckford’s  1895 
novelties  and  possesses  considerable  merit.  Mrs.  Joseph  Cham¬ 
berlain  is  also  a  decided  acquisition.  Meteor  is  a  decided  improve¬ 
ment  on  Orange  Prince,  but  will  not  be  appreciated  until  it  is 
brought  up  to  the  grandiflora  type.  Duke  of  York,  Novelty,  and 
Duchess  of  York  come  next  in  order  of  value.” 

A  Student' s  Opinion  of  the  Sweet  Peas . 

Mr.  Wyman,  who  has  studied  our  sweet  peas  in  the  field  day  by 
day,  has  given  me  the  following  impressions  of  their  merits  and 
adaptabilities:  ‘  ‘  There  is  much  to  interest  the  careful  observer 
in  the  different  types  of  sweet  peas.  In  the  flower  only  three  colors 
appear,  white  red  and  blue,  or  rather  purple,  although  the  bud  is 
always  yellow.  While  the  habit  of  the  plant  is  much  the  same 
in  all  varieties,  the  various  colors  and  forms  of  the  blossoms 
present  a  series  of  transitions  throughout  the  species.  One  type, 
represented  by  the  Improved  Painted  Lady,  seemingly  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  many  of  the  improved  sorts,  is  widely  known.  It  has 
pink  wings  and  a  peculiar  pink-reddish  banner,  upon  both  of 
which  numerous  changes  have  been  wrought.  The  pink  wings 
may  become  whiter  and  whiter,  until  only  the  slightest  tinge  of  pink 
is  apparent,  while  the  banner  retains  most  of  its  lurid  hue.  The 
type,  on  the  other  hand,  may  run  to  deep  colors,  the  wings  pass¬ 
ing  into  purple,  and  the  banner  also  becoming  darker.  When 
both  banner  and  wings  become  strongly  purple,  another  type  is 
obtained,  of  which  Cardinal  Wolseley  is  an  example.  Here  the 
*  banner  is  crimson  and  the  wings  maroon.  The  darkest  and  pur- 
plest  flowers  belong  to  this  class,  and  are,  also,  the  least 
beautiful.  In  other  cases  the  flower  retains  the  purple,  but  it  as¬ 
sumes  a  distinctly  lighter  cast.  Still  another  form  of  the  Painted 
Lady  type  is  a  red-purple,  blotched  with  lavender,  like  the  Coun¬ 
tess  of  Radnor.  Going  back  to  our  original  type  of  the  pink  and 
red,  we  may  start  again  in  the  first  direction,  towards  a  loss  of 
color.  When  both  banner  and  wings  become  very  light,  as  in  the 
Empress  of  India,  we  have  a  beautiful  salmon,  one  of  the  softest 
shades  in  the  species. 

“  While  the  greatest  variations  of  the  blossoms  appear  in  the 


Sweet  Peas. 


187 


color,  there  as  also,  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  a  variation  in  form. 
One  type  spreads  out  abroad  rigid  banner  ;  another,  more  fragile, 
folds  its  banner  together  slightly,  while  another  bends  it  back¬ 
ward.  Still  another  class,  perhaps  the  most  remarkable,  folds 
over  the  lateral  edges  of  its  banner  and  forms  a  hood.  The 
student  loves  to  contemplate  the  flower  and  attempt  to  construct 
some  hypothesis  of  the  means  by  which  these  variations  are 
brought  about.  Here  a  delicate  fibre  has  strengthened  itself, 
and  holds  a  petal  rigidly  in  place.  In  another  flower  the  fibre  is 
less  sturdy,  and  allows  its  banner  to  curl  and  plait  itself.  In 
another  a  notch  is  taken  from  the  side  of  the  banner,  weakening 
the  rigidity  of  the  structure.  Of  necessity  the  edge  then  curls 
forward  and  we  have  the  hooded  form.  One  can  imagine  a  change 
in  color,  too,  by  a  cell  losing  or  retaining  its  characteristic  pig¬ 
ment;  and  even  in  health  there  may  come  the  deathly  purple 
which  is  always  sure  to  appear  as  the  blossom  fades. 

“There  are  so  many  attractive  varieties  that  it  is  difficult  to  say 
which  are  the  leading  ones.  If  a  flaming  color  is  wanted,  one  may 
choose  the  Apple  Blossom,  of  the  old  pink  and  red  type,  which 
surpasses  all  in  brilliancy  and  uniformity  of  color.  It  gives  the 
prettiest  mass  to  be  found  in  all  the  varieties  which  we  have 
grown.  Another  form  of  the  same  type,  the  Improved  Painted 
Lady,  combines  much  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  Apple  Blossom 
with  a  softer  and  much  more  pleasing  finish.  It  is  also  earlier 
and  more  profuse  in  its  bloom.  The  Empress  of  India  gives  a 
delightful  salmon  which,  in  the  beauty  of  its  mass,  approaches 
the  Apple  Blossom  and  at  the  same  time  is  one  of  the  prettiest 
varieties  for  cutting  for  single  specimens.  The  Countess  of  Rad¬ 
nor  is  an  expression  of  a  dark  lilac  color  and  a  hooded  form. 
Notwithstanding  its  remarkable  characteristics,  it  is  by  no  means 
a  beautiful  flower  because  the  color  seems  to  lack  character.  The 
Butterfly,  of  a  much  lighter  type  of  azure,  is  perhaps  the  most 
charming  of  all.  It  is  pale  lilac  and  delicate.  Its  single  flower 
is  effective,  and  in  mass  it  gives  a  shade  of  which  one  never  tires. 
It,  too,  is  an  early  and  profuse  bloomer.  Of  the  whites,  Mrs. 
Langtry  is,  perhaps,  the  most  pleasing,  but  is  surpassed  in  earli¬ 
ness  and  productiveness  by  the  Fairy  Queen.  Of  the  purples, 
Cardinal  Wolseley  stands  foremost  both  in  richness  and  harmony 


Bulletin  iii. 


i  88 

of  color.  Nevertheless,  it  has  a  rival  in  earliness  and  bearing 
qualities  in  the  Imperial  Black,  but  it  is  not  equalled  in  quality. 
The  Orange  Prince,  while  only  a  moderate  bloomer,  must  not  be 
overlooked.  It  approaches  the  Painted  Lady  type,  but  is  charac¬ 
terized  by  its  orange  banner  and  rose-pink  wings.  It  is  pretty, 
but  not  the  best.  It  is  different  from  all  the  rest,  and  the  collection 
would  be  incomplete  without  it.  As  to  which  sweet  pea  is  best  of 
all,  the  Improved  Painted  Lady  seems  to  me  to  be  most  satisfac¬ 
tory  and  I  am  willing  to  cast  our  lot  with  it. 

“  It  is  a  common  practice  to  sow  together  a  number  of  varieties 
and  to  call  them  mixed,  but  when  one  tries  it,  he  finds  that  it  does 
not  give  the  satisfaction  which  comes  of  a  single  variety.  Al¬ 
though  the  colors  may  be  related,  the  mixtures  do  not  produce  the 
harmony  which  is  essential  to  the  best  effects.  If  there  must  be 
a  mixture,  it  is  much  better  to  follow  the  pattern  of  a  single 
flower  by  giving  a  decided  tone  to  the  mass  with  some  one  charac¬ 
teristic  variety,  of  a  profuse  bloom,  as  the  Invincible  Scarlet,  and 
then  touch  it  up  slightly  in  the  two  directions  of  light  and  shade, — 
with  a  light  pink,  as  Mrs.  Gladstone,  and  a  white,  as  Fairy  Queen, 
and  perhaps  with  a  moderately  dark  pink  and  purple, — the  less 
purple  the  better, —  as  the  Captain  of  the  Blues,  discarding  lilacs, 
— which  may  be  good  in  themselves, — and  also  all  striped  purples, 
which  seem  to  be  inappropriate  to  any  ornamentation  whatever. 

“The  use  of  the  sweet  pea  in  ornamental  work  can  be  best 
understood  by  considering  its  natural  character  and  adaptability. 
It  is  a  common  and  rather  cheap  plant.  It  seems  to  have  some¬ 
thing  in  common  with  weeds  as  well  as  with  refined  exotics.  It 
is  naturally  modest  and  retiring.  It  is  not  improved  by  the  so¬ 
ciety  of  other  flowering  plants.  It  is  beautiful  when  growing  by 
itself  in  masses  in  half-secluded  places,  but  does  not  bear  great 
prominence.  I  remember  to  have  seen  one  place  where  it  looked 
uncommonly  well,  and  that  was  on  a  rough  wooden  trellis,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  half-grown  grass,  a  few  feet  from  a  dingy  uninterest¬ 
ing  wooden  house,  on  the  side  where  no  one  ever  came.  In  an 
ordinary  well-kept  flower-garden,  where  the  beds  are  laid  out  by 
themselves,  it  may  sometimes  appears  to  advantage,  but  it  seems 
wholly  out  of  place  in  a  strictly  formal  bed. 

“All  that  has  been  said  refers  to  the  growing  plant  and  flower. 


Sweet  Peas. 


189 


More  properly,  the  use  of  the  sweet  pea  bloom  is  in  the  bouquet. 
No  place  then  is  so  exalted  but  that  it  adds  an  extra  light,  and 
none  is  so  humble  that  it  is  not  at  home.” 

II.  Varieties  Grown  at  Cornele  in  1895. 

An  attempt  was  made  the  past  season  to  obtain  all  the  sweet 
peas  which  were  offered  by  American  seedsmen.  Nearly  all  of 
them  were  planted  April  30th,  but  a  few  later  arrivals  were  sown 
in  the  first  days  of  May.  The  soil  was  a  stiff  clay  loam.  The 
area  was  about  150  feet  long,  and  one  end  of  it  was  naturally 
more  moist  than  the  other,  yet  this  difference  in  soil  did  not 
appear  to  exercise  a  great  influence  upon  the  season  of  bloom. 
The  entire  area  was  well  tilled  throughout  the  season  (as  explain¬ 
ed  on  page  176).  The  vines  were  tied  up  as  they  grew  to  a  trellis 
of  five  horizontal  wires,  and  the  pods  were  removed  as  they  form¬ 
ed.  The  plants  continued  to  bloom  throughout  September,  and 
even  on  the  8th  of  October,  when  the  last  notes  were  taken,  sev¬ 
eral  of  the  varieties  were  still  producing  good  flowers. 

In  rating  the  merits  of  the  flowers  in  this  list,  we  have  called 
those  varieties  ‘  ‘  good  ’  ’  which  rise  to  the  accepted  standard  of 
excellence  of  the  modern  improved  sweet  peas.  A  variety  which 
rises  above  this  level,  or  has  some  superlative  merit,  is  designated 
“  very  good.”  Varieties  which  fall  below  this  level,  are  variously 
designated,  usually  as  “  fairly  good  these  are  varieties  of  indif¬ 
ferent  merit.  Below  these  are  the  varieties  which  were  distinctly 
poor.  The  reader  should  remember,  however,  that  these  opinions 
are  founded  solely  upon  the  behavior  of  the  varieties  upon  our 
own  grounds  last  year.  They  are  not  intended  to  serve  as  a  gen¬ 
eral  or  infallible  estimate  of  the  varieties.  The  accounts  of  these 
varieties  are  all  made  directly  from  the  plants  as  they  grew  on 
our  grounds,  uninfluenced  by  published  descriptions. 

One  who  is  sensitive  to  inelegant  or  pretentious  expressions 
must  deplore  many  of  the  names  of  the  sweet  peas.  Ambit¬ 
ious  names  are  always  in  bad  taste,  but  nowhere  more  so  than 
in  the  sweet  pea,  of  which  the  most  prominent  characteristic 
is  modesty  and  indifference.  We  cannot  expect  to  control  the 
names  which  come  to  us  from  abroad,  but  our  own  originators 


190  Bulletin  hi. 

should  exercise  a  care  to  give  names  at  least  worthy  the  plant 
which  is  to  bear  them. 

The  name  in  parenthesis  in  the  following  list  is  that  of  the 
dealer  who  supplied  us  with  the  seed.  The  varieties  marked  with 
an  asterisk  (*)  were  originated  by  Mr.  Eckford,  and  to  some  of 
these  the  date  of  introduction  is  added.  Several  dealers  have  kindly 
contributed  to  this  test  of  varieties,  and  Mr.  Hutchins  sent  us  a 
good’collection  of  seeds  “  for  the  good  of  the  cause.” 
i.  Adonis.  (Gardiner.) 

Very  good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex,  apex  rounded,  base  wedge- 
shaped.  Color,  rose-pink,  soft.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  until  Sept.  1. 

Profuse  July  29. 


>  ;  *  ,, 


■mm 


■  .. 


80. — Apple  Blossom.  An  ab?iormal  4- flowered  truss . 


Sweet  Peas. 


191 


2.  Alba  Ma^nifica.  (Bnrpee.)  Fig.  79,  top. 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  notched.  Color,  pure  white.  Bloom 
somewhat  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

3.  American  Belle.  (Burpee.) 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  hooded  to  almost  flat.  Color,  rose  pink. 
Bloom  medium,  uniform  the  whole  season. 

Began  to  bloom  July  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

4.  Apple  Blossom.  (Gardiner. )  *  Fig.  80. 

Very  good;  one  of  the  best.  Flowers  above  medium  size.  Standard 
slightly  hooded.  Color,  rose-pink.  Bloom  profuse.  Beautiful  growing  in  a 
mass. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

5.  Black  and  Brown  Striped.  (Breck.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  notched.  Color, 

standard  white  striped  with  pink,  wings  white  striped  with  rose.  Bloom 

% 

profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  29. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

6.  Black  Purple.  (Breck.) 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium  size.  Color,  standard  dark  pink,  wings 
reddish  purple.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  23. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

7.  Blanche  Burpee .  *  1894. 

Received  from  two  dealers.  The  seed  from  one  source  did  not  grow  ;  that 
from  the  other  was  received  so  late  that  the  plants  failed  to  bloom. 

8.  Blanche  Ferry.  (Gardiner.).  Fig.  8t. 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex.  Color,  scarlet,  the 
wings  with  large  white  blotches.  Somewhat  brilliant.  Bloom  profuse. 
Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  July  29. 

9.  Blue  Bell.  (May  &  Co.  ) 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex,  wedge-shaped.  Color, 
standard  pink,  wings  purple-rose.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  Aug.  9. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 


192 


Bulletin  hi. 


10.  Blue  Bird.  (C.  B.  Strong). 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  hooded.  Color,  dark  pur¬ 
ple-red.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

11.  Blue  Edged.  (Vick’s  Sons.) 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  hooded,  with  two  sinuses  at  the  sides. 
Color,  purple  lilac.  Bloom  profuse.  Evidently  the  same  as  Butterfly. 

Began  to  bloom  July  15. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  July  29 

12.  Blue  Invincible.  (Childs ) 

Same  as  Imperial  Blue. 


81. — Blanche  Ferry. 

13.  Blushing  Beauty.  (Hutchins.)  *1893. 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex,  notched.  Color,  soft,  pure 
salmon.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  Aug.  12. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 


Sweet  Peas. 


i93 


14.  Blushing  Bride.  (Childs.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  standard  pink,  wings 
white  blotched  with  purple-rose.  Cheap.  Bloom  profuse.  Evidently  a 
strain  of  Painted  Lady. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

15.  Boreatton.  (Gardiner.)* 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex.  Color,  standard 
crimson,  wings  maroon,  deep  and  rich.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  16. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  July  22. 

16.  Bronze  King.  (Burpee.) 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  stiff,  notched.  Color,  stand¬ 
ard  light  pink,  wings  white;  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  16. 

Continued  until  Sep.  15,  quite  uniformly. 

17.  Bronze  Prince  (Burpee.)* 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  purple-red,  the  wings  the 
more  purple.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

18.  Butterfly.  (Burpee.)  Fig.  82. 

Very  good  and  dainty.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  hooded,  with 
two  sinuses  at  the  sides.  Color,  purple-lilac,  one  of  the  prettiest.  Bloom 
profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  Aug.  5. 

19.  Captain  Clarke.  (Burpee.)* 

Poor  quality,  but  prolific.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color, 
standard  white  merging  into  pink  and  purple,  wings  white  with  a  purplish 
cast.  Bloom  profuse.  Far  from  being  beautiful. 

Began  to  bloom  July  16. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

20.  Captaifi  of  the  Blues.  (Gardiner.)* 

Very  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  purple-red,  the  wings 
more  purple.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

2r.  Captain  Sharkey.  (Breck. ) 

Flowers  small.  Standard  flat.  Color,  standard  pink,  wings  dark  rose. 


194 


Bulletin  hi. 


Bore  only  one  flower.  Evidently  not  a  fair  test. 

.  Bloomed  Aug.  8. 

22.  Cardinal  IVolse/ey.  (May  &  Co.) 

Very  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat,  slightly  wedged.  Color, 
standard  crimson,  wings  maroon,  rich.  Bloom  somewhat  profuse.  Same  as 
Cardinal  ? 

Began  to  bloom  July  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

23.  Carmen  Sylva. 
(Hutchins.) 

Not  a  success.  Flow¬ 
ers  medium  size. 
Standard  convex, 
notched.  Color,  stand¬ 
ard  pink,  wings  dark 
rose-purple.  Bloom 
very  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom 
Ang.  5. 

Bloom  of  short  dura¬ 
tion. 

24.  Countess  of  Rad¬ 
nor.  (Gardiner.)* 
Fig.  72. 

Very  good,  unique. 
Flowers  large.  Stand¬ 
ard  hooded.  Color, 
1  avender  blotched  with 
red-purple.  Bloom 
medium  in  quantity. 
82. — Butterfly.  Began  to  bloom 

July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

The  same  from  Hutchins,  except  that  the  bloom  wras  profuse,  beginning 
with  July  22. 

25.  Crown  Princess  of  Prussia.  (Burpee.) 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex.  Color,  standard  pink, 
wings  rose-pink.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  15. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

Cupid:  Seepage  182. 

26.  Dark  Red.  (Childs.) 

Same  as  Painted  Lady. 


Sweet  Peas. 


i95 


27.  Delight.  (Breck.  )* 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  concave,  stiff.  Color,  white.  Bloom 
medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  24. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

Same  from  Burpee,  but  bloom  very  profuse. 

28.  Dorothy  Tennant .*1892.  Fig.  78,  center. 

Good.  Flowers  large  Standard  hooded.  Color,  red  purple,  the  wings 
more  purple,  somewhat  heavy.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

29.  Duchess  of  Edinburgh.  (Burpee.)* 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  standard  pink,  wings 
rose  pink.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  19 
Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

30.  Duchess  of  Marlboro.  (May  &  Co. ) 

Very  good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat.  Color,  standard  pink,  wings 
rose-pink.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

31.  Duke  of  Clarence  (Hutchins.  )*i893. 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  somewhat  hooded,  with  two  sinues 
in  the  sides.  Color,  purplish  red,  the  wings  strongly  purple.  Bloom  profuse. 
Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

32.  Duke  of  Kent.  (May  &  Co.) 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  wedge-shape.  Color,  rose-pink. 
Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  27. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

33.  Emily  Eckf or d.  (Hutchins.  )*i893. 

Good  quality.  Flowers  medium  and  large.  Standard  hooded.  Color,  red- 
purple,  bright.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  15. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

34.  Emily  Henderson.  (Burpee.)  Fig.  79  bottom. 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  notched.  Color,  pure 
white.  Bloom  profuse,  early. 


196 


Bulletin  hi. 


Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season . 

At  best  July  22. 

35.  Empress  of  India.  (Burpee.)* 

Very  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  salmon,  soft, 
bright,  one  of  the  most  beautiful.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  Aug.  12. 

36.  Etna.  (Hutchins.)  Fig.  78,  right. 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  wedge-shaped.  Color,  stand¬ 
ard  pink,  wings  rose,  brilliant.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  until  Sep.  1. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

37.  Fairy  Queen.  (Burpee.) 

Rather  poor.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  white  streaked 
or  shaded  with  pink,  the  soft  color  almost  pure.  Bloom  very  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  11. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

38.  Firefly.  ( Hutchins. )*i893. 

Good  in  quality.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff,  spreading.  Color, 
standard,  crimson,  wings  rose-pink. 

Bloom  very  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  Aug.  7. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

39.  Flesh-Colored.  (Caldwell  and  Jones). 

Of  no  great  value.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  notched.  Color,  stand¬ 
ard  pink,  wings  rose-pink.  Bloom  sparse.  Much  like  Painted  Lady. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

40.  Gaiety.  (Hutchins.)*i893. 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  slightly  convex.  Color, 
white,  heavily  streaked  with  pink,  bright  and  somewhat  fickle.  Bloom  pro¬ 
fuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

41.  Grand  Blue.  (Gardiner  &  Co.) 

Same  as  Imperial  Blue. 

42.  Her  Majesty.  (Hutchins. )*i892. 

Good  quality.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat.  Color,  rose-pink. 
Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  31. 


Sweet  Peas. 


197 


Continued  throughout  the  season. 

43.  Ignea.  (Burpee.)  * 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  standard  pink,  wings  rose- 
pink,  brilliant,  one  of  the  richest  colors.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  15. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

44.  Imperial  Black .  (Perry  Seed  Store.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  hooded  with  two  sinuses  at  the 
sides.  Color,  purplish  red.  Bloom  profuse.  Probably  same  as  Imperial 
Blue. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

45.  Imperial  Blue.  (Burpee.)  *  Fig.  83. 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium.  Standard  somewhat  rolled.  Color, 
purple-red.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

46.  Improved  Painted  Lady.  (Eandreth  &  Sons.) 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  somewhat  wedge-shaped. 
Color,  standard  pink,  wings  light  pink,  or  white  blotched  with  rose-pink. 
Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  profuse  from  July  22. 


83. — Imperial  Blue. 


198 


Bulletin  hi. 


47.  Indigo  King.  (Burpee.)* 

Fair  quality.  Flowers  large.  Standard  hooded  with  two  sinuses  at  the 
sides.  Color,  standard,  dark  purple-red,  wings,  dark  plum.  Bloom  medium. 
Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

48.  Invincible  Carmine.  (Burpee.) 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  wedge-shaped.  Color, 
standard  dull  pink,  wings  rose-pink.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  31. 

Continued  until  Sept.  1. 

49.  Invincible  Scarlet .  (Gardiner.) 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex,  base  wedge-shaped.  Color, 
scarlet.  Bloom  profuse.  Brilliant,  but  somewhat  cheap,  from  becoming 
white  about  the  edges  as  it  fades. 

Began  to  bloom  July  15. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  Aug.  5. 

50.  Invincible  Striped.  (Burpee.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  slightly  convex,  notched. 
Color,  white  streaked  with  pink,  rather  cheap.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

51.  Isa  Eckford.  (Burpee.)* 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  sometimes  hooded.  Color, 
light  rose-pink,  delicate.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug  12. 

52.  Joanna  Theresa.  (Breck.) 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  stiff,  notched.  Color, 
standard  dark  pink,  wings  reddish  purple,  rich.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloomjuly  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

53.  Lady  Beaconsfield.  (Hutchins.  )*i894. 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex,  wedge-shaped.  Color, 
standard  dull  pink  tinged  with  lavender,  wings  lavender  and  a  very  light 
yellow.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloomjuly  13. 

Continued  until  Sept.  1. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 


Sweet  Peas. 


199 


54.  Lady  Penzance.  (Hutchins.  )*i894. 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  slightly  hooded.  Color,  cherry.  Bloom 
moderately  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  24. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

55.  Lemon  Queen.  (Burpee.  )*i892. 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  white 
with  a  slightly  pinkish  cast,  soft,  bright.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  Aug.  5. 

56.  Light  Blue  and  Purple.  (Burpee.) 

Not  wholly  a  success.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex,  stiff,  notched. 
Color,  standard  dark  pink,  wings  purple.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  Aug.  3. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

57.  Lord  Derby.  (May&Co. ) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  slightly  concave,  wedge-shaped. 
Color,  standard  pink,  wings  purple-pink.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

58.  Lottie  Eckford.  (Burpee.)* 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  hooded.  Color  lilac. 
Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  29. 

Continued  until  Sept.  1. 

See  also,  New  Lottie  Eckford. 

59.  Madame  Carnot.  (Hutchins.) 

Same  as  Imperial  Blue. 

60.  Minnie  Keepers.  (May  &  Co.) 

Good.  Flower  large.  Standard  hooded.  Color,  standard  pinkish  lilac, 
wings  lilac.  Bloom*medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

61.  Miss  Hunt.  (Burpee)* 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  slightly  wedged.  Color, 
light  cherry.  Bloom^medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 


200 


Bulletin  hi. 


62.  Mixtures — 

Alneer's  Invincible.  (Alneer.) 

A  fairly  good  mixture.  The  lilac  and  pink  do  not  harmonize 
any  too  well.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  July  29. 

Boston  Beauties.  (Rawson. ) 

A  fairly  good  mixture.  Bloom  somewhat  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  23. 

Continued  until  Sept.  10. 

Breck's  Mixture.  (Breck.) 

Almost  all  white,  though  the  combinations  are  good.  Bloom 
medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

Eckford's  Gilt  Edge  or  Surpassing.  ( Burpee. ) 

Not  a  good  combination,  but  better  than  some  others. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

Eckford's  New  Mixed.  (Burpee.) 

Not  a  good  combination,  the  contrasts  of  color  too  strong. 
Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

Fine  Mixed.  (Burpee.) 

A  mixture  of  the  darker  colors,  giving  a  heavy  effect.  Bloom 
very  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

Huckin's  Bouquet.  (Geo.  A.  Huckins.) 

None  too  good.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

Invincible  Mixture.  (Vick’s  Sons.) 

Not  a  good  mixture.  Too  dark.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

New  Varieties  Mixed.  ( Burpee. ) 

Combination  poor ;  too  great  contrasts.  Bloom  profuse. 


Sweet  Peas. 


201 


Began  to  bloom  July  15. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  Aug.  5. 

Special  Colored  Plate  Mixture.  ( Burpee. ) 

Good,  but  for  the  presence  of  an  objectionable  striped  purple. 

Profuse  Aug.  12.  Out  of  bloom  Sept.  1. 

Splendid  Hybrid.  (Perry  Seed  Store.) 

Evidently  consisted  mainly  of  one  pink  variety.  Bloom  profuse. 
Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

63-  Monarch.  ( Burpee.  )* 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat.  Color  light  rose 
pink,  soft.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

64.  Mrs.  Eckford.  *1892. 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  white.  Bloom 
always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  Aug.  6. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

65.  Mrs.  Gladstone.  (Gardiner.)*  Fig.  84. 

Very  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex,  rounded  apex. 
Color,  a  light  rose-pink,  soft  and  delicate.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  July  29. 

66.  Mrs.  Langtry.  (May  &  Co.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  notched.  Color,  pure 
white,  rich.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  30. 

Continued  until  Sept.  15. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

67.  Mrs.  Sankey.  (Burpee.)* 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium.  Standard  flat.  Color,  light  pink.  Bloom 
rather  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

68.  Nellie  Jaynes.  (Barteldes  &  Co.) 

Same  as  Painted  Lady. 


202  Bulletin  iii. 

69.  New  Lottie  Eckford.  (Hutchins.) 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  hooded.  Color,  lilac.  Bloom  medium. 
Began  to  bloom  Aug.  3. 

Continued  until  Sep.  1. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 


84. — Mrs.  Gladstone.  One  of  the  best  pinks . 

70.  Orange  Prince.  (Burpee,  Breck.)* 

Good,  unique.  Flowers  small.  Standard  convex.  Color,  standard  bright 
orange-pink,  wings  light  rose.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  29. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 


Sweet  Peas. 


203 


71.  Ovid.  (Hutchins.)  *1894. 

Good  quality.  Flowers  large.  Standard  slightly  hooded.  Color,  a  bright 
reddish  pink,  brilliant,  well  diffused.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

72.  Painted  Lady.  (Burpee.) 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  nearly  flat,  slightly  notched. 
Color,  standard  rose-pink,  wings  light  pink,  or  else  dark  pink  blotched  with 
white.  Bloom  profuse.  Bright. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  until  Sept.  15. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

See  Improved  Painted  Lady. 

73.  Peach  Blossom.  (Huchins.)*  1894. 

Grew  to  a  height  of  forty  inches,  but  did  not  bear  a  single  blossom,  al¬ 
though  it  produced  buds  at  various  times  thoughout  the  season. 

74.  Primrose.  (Gardiner.)* 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  quite  convex,  notched,  base 
wedge-shape.  Color,  white  with  a  slightly  yellowish  tinge.  Bloom  sparse 
throughout  the  season. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

75.  Princess  Beatrice.  (Burpee.) 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  concave,  stiff.  Color, 
soft  pink.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

76.  Princess  Louise.  (Burpee.) 

Same  as  Violet  Queen. 

77.  Princess  May.  (Hutchins.) 

A  failure.  One  blossom  Aug.  5. 

78.  Princess  of  Wales.  (Gardiner.)  * 

Good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat,  apex  round.  Color,  drab  strongly 
streaked  with  purplish  red,  dull.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  July  29. 

79.  Princess  Victoria.  (Burpee.)* 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat.  Color,  standard  pink,  wings 
rose-pink.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 


204 


Bulletin  hi. 


80.  Purple.  (Price  &  Read.) 

Grew  36  inches  high.  First  flower  Aug.  9.  Did  not  bloom  again. 

81.  Purple  Brown.  (Caldwell  and  Jones.) 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  large.  Standard  somewhat  hooded.  Color, 
standard  purple-red,  wings  purple.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  23. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

82.  Purple  Prince.  (Burpee.)* 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  standard  dark 
pink,  wings  purple.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  30. 

Continued  until  Sept.  15. 

83.  Purple  Striped.  (Burpee.) 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat.  Color,  purplish-red  streak¬ 
ed  with  lilac.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

84.  Purple  Striped.  (Caldwell  &  Jones.) 

Not  like  Purple  Striped  (Burpee),  but  like  Black  and  Brown  Striped 
(Breck). 

Of  little  value.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  white  striped  with 
rose-purple.  Bloom  scarcely  any. 

One  blossom  appeared  Aug.  5. 

85.  Queen.  (Gardiner.)* 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex  base  wedge  shaped. 
Color,  standard  light  pink,  wings  a  pink-purple.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

86.  Queen  of  England.  * 

Medium  quality.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex,  notched,  base 
wedge-shape.  Color,  white.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

87.  Queen  of  the  Isles.  (Burpee.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat,  stiff,  wings  at  right  angles 
to  it.  Color,  white  striped  with  pink.  Bloom  somewhat  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  25. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 


Sweet  Peas. 


205 


88.  Red  and  White  Striped.  (Breck. ) 

Poor.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  convex.  Color  white  strongly 
streaked  with  pink.  Bloom  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  23. 

Continued  until  Sept.  15. 

89.  Rising  Sun.  (Burpee.)  Fig.  78,  left. 

Thrifty  but  not  beautiful.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  slightly  notched, 
Color,  standard  white  streaked  with  cherry,  wings  white  and  cherry  ;  bril¬ 
liant.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  13. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

90.  Royal  Robe.  (Hutchins.)  *1894. 

Fair  quality.  Flowers  large.  Standard  slightly  hooded.  Color,  pink,  not 
well  diffused. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Blossoms  always  sparse. 

91.  Senator.  (Burpee.)* 

None  too  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  lilac  streaked  with 
purplish  red.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  23. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

92.  Scarlet.  (Vick’s  Sons.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  notched.  Color,  stand¬ 
ard  pink,  wings  purple-rose.  Bloom  somewhat  sparse.  Probably  same  as 
Invincible  Scarlet. 

Began  to  bloom  July  24. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

93.  Scarlet  Striped.  (Burpee.) 

None  too  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat,  wedge-shape.  Color 
white  strongly  streaked  with  pink,  cheap.  Bloom  medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  20. 

Continued  throughout  the  season.  „ 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

94.  Scarlet  Winged.  (Vick’s  Sons. ) 

Did  not  grow. 

95.  Snowflake.  (C.  B.  Strong.) 

Did  not  bloom. 

96.  Splendid  Lilac.  (Burpee1) 

Good.  Flowers  medium.  Standard  convex,  slightly  notched.  Color, 
standard,  pink  edged  with  red  purple,  wings  lilac.  Bloom  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  17. 


206 


Bulletin  hi. 


Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

97.  Splendor.  (Burpee.)*  Fig.  77. 

Good.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat.  Color,  bright  pink.  Bloom 
sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 


85. —  Venus.  Soft  and  delicate  pink . 


98.  Stanley.  (Hutchins. )*i894. 

Good  quality.  Flowers  large.  Standard  flat.  Color,  standard,  dark  pink, 
wings,  rose-purple.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  Aug.  2. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

99.  Tangier  Scarlet.  (Price  &  Reed. )  Fig.  74. 

Very  good  at  a  distance  from  the  sweet  pea.  If  both  are  together,  the 
sweet  pea  is  smothered,  this  species  maturing  very  much  the  earlier.  Flow¬ 
ers  medium  size.  Standard,  sometimes  flat,  stiff-,  obcordate,  pointed,  at 
others  closely  hooded  so  as  to  overlap  itself  and  enclose  the  wings.  Wings 
very  small.  Bloom  profuse.  A  strong  grower. 

Began  to  bloom  July  1. 


Sweet  Peas. 


207 


Continued  through  most  of  the  season. 

Profuse  from  July  13. 

A  variety  of  Lathyrus  Tingitanus  See  p.  174. 

100.  Venus.  ( Hutchins  )*i893-  Fig.  85. 

Good  to  very  good.  Flowers  large.  Standard  slightly  hooded.  Color, 
soft  pink,  delicate.  Bloom  rather  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  19. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Blossoms  always  scattered. 

101.  Vesuvius.  (Burpee.) 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff,  notched.  Color,  standard  pink 
with  a  shade  of  purple,  wings  reddish  purple.  Bloom  somewhat  profuse. 
Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

Profuse  from  Aug.  5. 

102.  Victoria  Regina.  (May  &  Co.) 

Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium  size.  Standard  flat,  broad.  Color, 
standard  white  heavily  blotched  with  pink,  wings  blotched  with  purple-rose, 
cheap.  Bloom  medium.  Much  like  Invincible  Striped. 

Began  to  bloom  July  24. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

103.  Violet  Queen.  (Burpee.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat  wedge-shaped.  Color,  standard 
light  pink,  wings  pink-rose.  Bloom  medium.  (Princess  Louise.) 

Began  to  bloom  July  26. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

104.  Waverly.  (Burpee.)  *1892. 

Good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  wedge-shape.  Color,  standard, 
light  pink,  wings  light  purple-pink.  Bloom  somewhat  profuse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 

105.  White.  (Burpee.) 

Fair.  Flowers  medium.  Standard,  slightly  convex,  notched.  Color, 
pure  white.  Bloom  always  sparse. 

Began  to  bloom  July  18. 

Continued  until  Sept.  1. 

Same  from  another  dealer.  Not  a  success.  Flowers  medium  size. 
Standard  flat,  deeply  notched.  Color,  pure  white.  Bloom  sparse. 
Began  to  bloom  July  30. 

Continued  througout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  12. 


208 


Bulletin  iii. 


106.  White  Invincible.  (Childs.) 

Fairly  good.  Flowers  small.  Standard  flat,  stiff.  Color,  white.  Bloom 
medium. 

Began  to  bloom  July  22. 

Continued  throughout  the  season. 

At  best  Aug.  5. 

The  superlative  ( ‘  ‘  very  good  ” )  varieties  in  this  test  are  the  following  : 
Adonis, 

Apple  Blossom, 

Blanche  Ferry, 

Boreatton, 

Butterfly, 

Captain  of  the  Blues, 

Cardinal  Wolseley, 

Countess  of  Radnor, 

Duchess  of  Marlboro, 

Emily  Henderson. 

Empress  of  India, 

Improved  Painted  Lady, 

Isa  Eckford, 

Lemon  Queen, 

Mrs.  Gladstone, 

Tangier  Scarlet. 


A.  P.  Wyman. 
L.  H.  Bailey. 


Bulletin  112.  February,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


THE  1895 


CHRYSANTHEMUMS. 


.  J.  E.  Eager,  See  p  235 

By  L.  H.  Baijey,  Wilhelm  Hiller,  and  C.  E.  Hunn. 


* 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob 

Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Gould  Schurman. 

Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

-  '  Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ------  Director. 

E.  L.  Williams,  ------  Treasurer. 

H.  W.  Smith,  ......  Clerk. 


ASSISTANTS 


M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  The  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  February  8,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir  :  This  account  of  our  cultivation  of  chrysanthemums  in  1895,  is  sub¬ 
mitted  for  publication  under  Chapter  230,  of  the  laws  of  1895. 

In  our  former  report  (Bulletin  91)  of  chrysanthemums,  made  nearly  a  year 
ago,  we  took  the  opportunity  of  a  fly-leaf  to  explain  our  position  upon  the 
vexed  question  of  the  testing  of  novelties.  We  made  the  following  statement: 
“We  refuse  to  test  varieties  simply  because  they  are  new.  Our  basis  of  study 
is  the  monograph, — the  investigation  of  a  particular  subject,  rather  than  the 
indiscriminate  growing  of  things  which  chance  to  be  put  upon  the  market  in 
a  given  year,  and  which  have  no  relationship  to  each  other  aside  from  a 
■coincidence  in  date.  When  we  take  up  a  certain  group  of  plants  for  study, 
we  endeavor  to.  secure  every  variety  of  it,  old  or  new.  These  varieties  are 
studied  not  only  in  the  field,  but  botanical  specimens  are  invariably  made  of 
every  one,  so  that  the  experimenter  has  specimens  before  him  for  liesurely 
study  when  the  hurry  of  field  work  and  the  excitement  of  bug-catching  are 
done.  We  are  always  glad  to  receive  the  seed  novelties  of  any  year,  but  we 
do  not  agree  to  report  upon  them  or  even  to  grow  them.  If  we  were  to 
attempt  to  grow  them  all,  we  should  simply  be  making  a  museum  of  curiosi¬ 
ties,  and  we  should  have  no  time  left  for  investigation  and  experiment.” 

This  seems  to  be  plain  enough  to  allow  of  no  mistake  as  to  our  position, yet 
we  have  been  half  accused  of  an  unwillingness  to  aid  dealers  and  buyers  in 
the  determining  of  synonyms  and  the  discarding  of  duplicate  and  unworthy 
varieties.  This  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  the  truth.  We  are  so  desirous  of 
aiding  in  this  direction  that  we  have  refused  to  make  any  effort  except  when 
we  believed  that  we  could  really  accomplish  the  purpose.  We  are  free  to  say 
that  we  have  no  sympathy  with  the  ordinary  “  variety  test,”  which  simply 
grows  a  lot  of  things  and  then  sets  down  a  few  unrelated  measurements  of 
them.  One  must  make  a  comprehensive  and  detailed  and  prolonged  study 
of  his  subject,  with  all  the  factors  before  him,  before  he  is  able  to  judge  of 
such  an  apparently  simple  thing  as  the  merits  of  varieties.  All  estimates 
of  varieties  must  be  comparative.  One  cannot  grow  an  onion,  and  then  say 
that  it  is  or  is  not  the  same  as  others,  nor  can  he  likely  give  any  accurate 
measure  of  its  comparative  merits,  for  he  has  no  other  varieties  with  which 
to  compare  ;  and  he  cannot  carry  even  such  emphatic  subjects  as  onions  in 
his  mind  from  year  to  year.  One  cannot  file  away  specimens  of  all  garden 
varieties,  as  they  grow  in  all  soils  and  all  seasons,  as  he  can  dried  plants  and 
bugs.  If  the  station  officer  is  to  be  able  to  identify  and  to  judge  all  varieties 
sent  to  him,  he  must  attempt  to  grow  every  variety  of  every  plant  every  year. 
And  even  if  he  should  grow  them  all,  he  would  likely  gain  little,  save  exper¬ 
ience,  from  his  effort,  for  the  subject  is  too  large  for  instant  study.  In  1896 
we  expect  to  make  a  study  of  Brussels  sprouts,  dahlias,  sweet  corn,  chrysan¬ 
themums,  cannasand  tuberous  begonias,  and  any  person  who  has  varieties  of 
these  things  which  he  wants  tested  may  send  them  to  us.  Of  these  things, 
especially  the  ornamentals,  we  should  receive  the  novelties  in  advance  of 
their  general  introduction,  if  possible. 

F  In  this  chrysanthemum  study,  I  have  been  fortunate  in  my  associates. 
Mr.  Miller  is  a  special  student  in  horticulture,  a  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  and  has  given  most  enthusiastic  attention  to  our  chrysanthemum 
test.  Mr.  Hunn  is  a  gardener  of  much  experience,  well  known  for  his  long 
and  earnest  connection  with  experiment  station  work. 


U.  H.  Bailey. 


86. — Chrysanthemums  grown  for  specimen  blooms. 


THE  1895  CHRYSANTHEMUMS. 


I.  Sundry  Remarks  upon  the  Subject. 

It  is  charged  that  the  rapid  popularization  of  the  chrysanthe¬ 
mum  is  mere  fashion.  It  may  be  so  ;  but  if  fashion  were  hence¬ 
forth  always  to  produce  so  many  beauties  as  it  has  in  the  chrysan¬ 
themum,  it  might  be  forgiven  its  endless  record  of  follies.  The 
transcendent  merit  of  the  chrysanthemum  lies  in  its  almost  limit¬ 
less  variety  of  form,  texture  and  color  of  flowers.  There  is  no 
plant  known  to  American  gardens  which  approaches  it  in  these 
respects,  not  even  the  rose.  Such  variety  of  form  is  possible  only 
in  compositous  flowers,  in  which  each  floret  is  a  distinct  element 
and  capable  of  independent  development.  One  cannot  feel  the 
truth  of  these  remarks  until  he  has  an  opportunity  to  study  a  large 
collection  of  varieties  growing  together.  He  will  then  see  that 
almost  every  form  of  compositous  flower  which  the  mind  can 
picture  has  here  arisen. 

Yet,  various  as  the  chrysanthemums  are,  there  are  limitations 
to  the  development  of  the  species  in  certain  directions.  For  ex¬ 
ample,  it  is  idle  to  look  for  a  blue  chrysanthemum.  This  is  not 
because  of  any  assumed  or  theoretical  incompatability  of  the  blue 
and  yellow  series  of  colors,  but  simply  because  no  true  blue  vari¬ 
eties  have  ever  yet  appeared,  to  our  knowledge.  The  only  guide 
in  the  breeding  for  particular  characters  is  experience,  or  the  ob¬ 
served  behavior  of  the  species.  The  chrysanthemum  has  been 
cultivated  for  some  thousands  of  years,  but  amongst  all  its  depart¬ 
ures  it  has  given  no  blue  flowers.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that 
if  no  hint  of  such  variation  has  occurred  in  all  this  eventful  evolu¬ 
tion,  we  can  have  little  hope  for  its  appearing  in  the  future.  The 
same  remark  will  apply  to  the  much-coveted  but  ever-evasive  blue 
rose.  It  is  a  fundamental  tenet  of  plant-breeding  that  the  oper¬ 
ator  must  put  himself  in  line  with  the  natural  tendencies  of  the 
plant  and  work  harmoniously  along  with  nature,  rather  than  to 
set  himself  against  her.  Man’s  power  lies  more  in  improving  or 
augmenting  tendencies  which  already  exist  than  in  creating  new 


214 


Bulletin  112. 


tendencies.  There  is  a  tradition,  to  be  sure,  that  a  blue  chrysan¬ 
themum  was  once  produced,  under  political  pressure,  in  the  orient, 
but  there  is  no  exact  knowledge  of  the  matter  ;  and  if  the  King  of 
Japan  really  did  receive  such  a  tribute,  I  am  willing  to  believe 
that  someone  connected  with  the  transaction  forestalled  the 
modern  flower  “artist”  and  dyed  the  flower.  It  is  possible,  of 
course,  that  a  blue  chrysanthemum  may  appear,  but  the  prob¬ 
abilities  are  all  against  it ;  and  if  it  does  come,  it  will  probably 
originate  as  a  sport  or  bud-variety  rather  than  as  a  definite  at¬ 
tempt  thereat  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

One  must  remember,  too,  in  this  connection,  that  the  heavy 
colors  of  chrysanthemums  are  nearly  always  associated  with 
heaviness  and  gracelessness  of  habit.  We  have  no  pure  deep  red 
with  the  cut  of  Mrs.  Rand,  for  example.  But  even  the  same  form, 

particularly  if  it  inclines  strongly  to  regularity, 
has  a  heavier  appearance  in  dark  colors  than  in 
light  ones.  There  is  no  more  fertile  field  for  the 
development  of  new  types  than  in  the  combining 
of  light  and  graceful  forms  with  dark  colors. 

A  word  about  the  culture  of  chrysanthemums . — 
Our  own  tests  of  chrysanthemums  have  been 
made  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  specimen  or 
exhibition  blooms.  The  plants  are  therefore 
trained  to  a  single  stem  and  a  single  flower.  Fig. 
86  shows  our  house  as  it  looked  last  November. 
When  so  many  varieties  are  grown,  the  house  is 
not  at  its  best  at  any  one  time,  but  there  is  a 
progressing  exhibition.  The  house  there- 
8 i—'Mum  cut-  fore  lacks  the  full  appearance  of  an  ordinary 
ting.  Half  size,  commercial  house.  These  plants  were  made  from 
cuttings  taken  the  previous  spring,  the  plants  having  been  grown 
in  pots  until  late  July,  when  they  were  taken  from  the  pots  and 
set  in  the  bed. 

This  growing  of  the  plants  to  a  single  bloom  does  not  produce 
the  most  decorative  or  satisfactory  results.  It  simply  gives  large 
specimen  blooms.  I  much  prefer  to  grow  from  three  to  six 
blooms  on  a  plant,  and  shall  do  so  this  year.  The  plants  may  be 
flowered  in  pots,  or  in  a  solid  soil  bench.  Very  good  small  plants 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


215 


may  be  brought  to  perfection  in  6-inch  pots,  but  the  best  results, 
in  pot  plants,  are  to  be  obtained  in  8-inch  or  10-inch  pots.  If  the 
plants  are  to  be  used  for  decoration,  they  should,  of  course,  be 
grown  in  pots,  but  the  best  results  for  cut  flowers  are  usually  ob¬ 
tained  by  growing  in  the  earth.  In  any  case,  the  cuttings  are 
made  from  the  tips  of  basal  or  strong  lateral  shoots,  late  in 
February  to  May.  One  form  of  cutting  is  shown  in  Fig.  87.  It  is 
inserted  in  the  soil  to  the  point  C.  If  the  plants  are  to  be  flower¬ 
ed  in  pots — in  which  case  they  usually  mature  earlier — the  cut¬ 
tings  may  be  started  as  late  as  April,  or  even  June  ;  but  if  they 
are  grown  in  the  soil  and  large  plants  are  desired,  the  cuttings 
should  be  taken  in  February  or  March.  The  plants  which 
are  flowered  in  the  soil  are  generally  grown  in  pots  until  July. 
The  grower  must  decide  how  many  blooms  he  desires  on  a  plant, 
and  then  train  the  plant  accordingly,  bringing  up  the  different 
branches  so  that  they  will  all  bloom  at  the  same  time.  A  well 
grown  chrysanthemum,  in  an  8-inch  pot  and  bearing  five  or  six 
perfect  blooms,  is  one  of  the  most  decorative  plants  which  the 
florist  can  produce. 

Reflectio7is  upon  nomenclature ,  classification ,  and  variation  ( Mr . 
Miller). — There  is  need  for  reform  in  three  important  matters  re¬ 
lating  to  chrysanthemums, — nomenclature,  synonomy,  and  classi¬ 
fication.  New  varieties  of  chrysanthemums  often  bear  absurd, 
bombastic,  and  vulgar  names.  Many  are  named  after  society 
leaders,  and  prominent  persons.  There  are  always  practical  rea¬ 
sons  why  novelties  are  named  after  popular  men  and  women,  and 
these  reasons  are  often  unworthy  ones.  The  poor  quality  of 
cigars  named  after  election  candidates  is  notorious.  Those  who 
buy  new  flowers  because  of  the  attractive  names  usually  feel  de¬ 
frauded  of  their  sympathies.  The  criticism  is  often  made  that  our 
monthly  magazines  are  dealers  in  attractive  titles,  that  the  matter 
is  rarely  as  spicy  as  the  caption.  The  disseminators  of  new  hor¬ 
ticultural  varieties  take  advantage  of  waves  of  popular  enthusiasm. 
They  name  flowers  after  actors,  base-ball  players,  barons, 
saints,  and  society  leaders.  Almost  is  realized  one  of  Dean  Swift’s 
dissonant  combinations,  “lords,  fiddlers,  judges,  and  dancing 
masters.”  The  only  consistent  course  is  to  abolish  the  whole 
system  of  naming  varieties  after  living  persons.  So  long  as  this 


Bulletin  112. 


216 


12  34  5  6 


7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14  15 

88. — Forms  of  chrysanthemum  florets.  (See  pages  220.  221.) 


Floret  incurved,  13, 

Floret  reflexed,  2, 

Margin  incurved,  7,  10, 

Margin  revolute,  2,  15, 

Ligulate,  1,  6, 

Tubular,  12.  13, 

Various  degrees  of  tubularity,  7-13. 
Doubly  curved  ( i.e .,  twice  curved, 


Incurved  and  cupping,  4, 

Incurved  and  hooded  (cucullate),  5, 
Laciniate,  or  cut,  13,  14, 

Twisted,  15,  16, 

Hairy,  4,  5, 

Quilled,  11, 

“recurved”),  3. 


16 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


217 


system  continues,  the  element  of  disappointment  and  bad  taste 
will  persist.  It  is  a  constant  reproach  to  horticulture  that  the  art 
lacks  dignity.  Need  it  also  be  pointed  out  that  we  seem  to  be 
deficient  in  imagination  ? 

The  reform  would  be  sweeping  if  made  all  at  once,  but  there 
is  a  preliminary  step  in  this  direction  that  can  easily  be  taken. 
All  such  titles  as  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss,  General,  Judge,  Count,  Baron, 
etc.,  should  be  dropped.  These  titles  cause  endless  confusion. 
What  makes  the  case  peculiarly  hopeless  is  that  the  Natonal 
Chrysanthemum  Society  of  England  in  its  Official  Catalogue  has 
set  the  example  of  indexing  varieties  according  to  these  titles,  in 
defiance  to  the  established  rules  adopted  by  librarians,  indexers, 
and  cataloguers.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  pater  familias  is 
not  the  only  popular  member  of  the  family.  In  verifying  varie¬ 
ties  by  English  catalogues  (whose  methods  have  been  tamely 
copied  in  America)  it  is  often  necessary  to  remember  which  is 
Miss  Blank,  and  what  are  the  first  names  of  the  other  daughters. 
Label- writers  are  usually  careless,  and  their  “  M  ”  may  stand  for 
Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss,  Monsieur,  ora  Christian  name.  According  to 
the  trade  journals,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  order  a  “  Miss  ”  and 
get  a  “  Mr.”  The  use  of  titles  ought  to  be  discontinued. 

There  are  other  problems  of  nomenclature  which  are  coming 
up  constantly.  Many  of  them  have  been  considered  by  societies 
devoted  to  other  flowers,  or  to  fruits.  The  only  real  attempts  to 
solve  any  of  these  problems  have  been  made  by  the  American 
Pomological  Society,  and,  for  vegetables,  by  a  committee  of  Ex¬ 
periment  Station  horticulturists.  The  Pomological  Society  has 
drawn  up  a  set  of  rules,  but  unfortunately  the  other  societies  do 
not  follow  them.  What  is  really  wanted  for  progress  is  a  na¬ 
tional  horticultural  society  in  which  professional  growers  of 
plants,  amateurs  and  botanists  may  work  together.  The  socie¬ 
ties  devoted  to  the  culture  of  a  single  flower  could  cooperate  with 
the  national  society.  Of  course,  a  society,  as  such,  might  not  deal 
with  problems  of  synonomy  and  classification,  but  its  members 
could  do  so  either  as  committees  or  as  individual  students. 
Records  of  hybridization  are  worth  keeping,  as  well  as  many  other 
data  for  a  study  of  the  botany  of  cultivated  plants.  It  is  a  pity 
that  we  have  no  horticultural  society  of  the  dignity  of  the 


218 


Bulletin  112. 


Royal  Horticultural  Society.  The  American  genius  for  organiz¬ 
ing  ought  to  be  able  to  create  a  better  society  than  this  for  our 
own  needs.  Commercial  men  could  supply  materials  for  history 
and  science,  and  botanists  could  instruct  plant-breeders  at  almost 
every  point  of  their  work. 

There  is  this  distinction  between  botanical  classification  and 
horticultural  classification  :  the  world  can  wait  for  the  first ;  the 
second  has  a  daily  practical  bearing.  Prizes  often  do  harm  in 
this — that  they  encourage  production  of  flowers  that  conform  to 
arbitrary  and  fallacious  standards,  and  discourage  informality 
and  freedom.  This  is  strongly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the 
Mrs.  Alpheus  Hardy  chrysanthemum.  The  hairiness  of  that  var¬ 
iety  was  no  novelty  in  the  western  world.  It  had  repeatedly  ap¬ 
peared  in  England  and  had  been  patiently  if  not  sorrowfully  re¬ 
pressed.  The  florists  did  not  want  a  hairy  flower,  nor  was  it 
absolutely  new,  and  the  successes  of  the  florist  who  sold  it  for 
$1,500  and  the  dealer  who  is  supposed  to  have  made  $10,000  out 
of  it  in  one  year,  must  be  explained  in  some  other  way.  The  les¬ 
son  of  this  is  that  conventional  standards  and  horticultural  classi¬ 
fications  are  often  tyrannical.  It  is  certain  that  in  1886  no  hairy 
chrysanthemum  could  have  won  a  prize  before  the  National 
Chrysanthemum  Society  of  England.  If  florists  want  a  good 
example  of  the  tyranny  of  classifications  they  can  examine  the 
centenary  catalogue  of  that  society  and  see  the  ten  artificial  sec¬ 
tions  that  the  English  have  made  and  Americans  too  often  follow. 
The  English  have  more  rigid  classifications,  a  more  severe  system  of 
scoring  by  points,  bigger  prizes,  and  less  individuality  in  their 
flowers. 

The  danger  of  suppression  of  individualism  can  be  averted  for 
the  present,  so  far  as  the  American  Chrysanthemum  Society  is 
concerned,  by  a  more  liberal  interpretation  of  what  ‘  *  incurved  ’  ’ 
and  “Japanese”  may  mean.  The  Japanese  section  should  be 
made  broad  enough  to  include  most  types  which  do  not  fit  else¬ 
where.  The  English  “  incurved  ”  chrysanthemums  are  compact, 
round,  formal,  and  regular.  The  florets  are  carefully  arranged  in 
mathematical  order  by  means  of  forceps.  The  ‘  ‘  dressing  ’  ’  of 
petals  is  unpopular  in  this  country.  The  guard  petals  of  exhibi¬ 
tion  carnations  in  England  used  to  be  pasted  down  on  cardboards. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


219 


There  are  perfectly  estimable  people  who  still  take  pleasure  in  the 
stiffest  incurved  chrysanthemums.  Indeed,  it  is  the  wonder  and 
the  glory  of  the  chrysanthemum  that  it  can  be  varied  to  suit  all 
tastes.  This  variability  is  a  thing  inherent  and  essential.  It  is 
the  peculiar  genius  of  the  composites  Asters  have  it,  dahlias  have 


89. —  IV.  IV.  Astor.  Four-fifths  natural  size. 


it,  and  chrysanthemums  most  of  all.  It  is  capable  of  reflecting 
the  fleeting  frivolities  and  fashions  of  the  age  as  well  as  certain 
deeper  and  dearer  things.  Chrysanthemums  can  be  formal  as 
well  as  fanciful,  but  we  have  plenty  of  other  formal  flowers.  In¬ 
curved  chrysanthemums  were  popular  in  a  hoop-skirt  age,  but 


220 


Bulletin  112. 


the  Japanese  are  truly  fin  de  siecle.  They  are  informal,  fanciful, 
quaint,  odd,  individual,  and  therefore  a  more  complete  expression 
of  the  times  than  single,  incurved,  anemone,  or  pompon-flowered 
sections. 

Descriptions  of  the  florets  ( Mr .  Miller). — The  greatest  con¬ 
fusion  exists  in  commercial  catalogues  as  to  descriptive  terms  for 
chrysanthemums;  for  example  the  word  ‘  ‘recurved”  is  used  by  some 
dealers  to  mean  twice  curved  or  doubly  curved,  i.  e.,  the  second 
curve  being  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  first.  (See  No. 
3  in  the  plate  illustrating  different  types  of  florets,  Fig.  88.) 
Botanists,  however,  use  “recurved”  to  mean  a  single  curve  of 
greater  extent  than  that  expressed  by  ‘  ‘reflexed.  ’  ’  Descriptive  cata¬ 
logues  are  hard  to  write,  and  harder  still  to  order  from.  Illus¬ 
trations  are  preferable  in  this  day  of  cheap  mechanical  processes 
of  ’engraving.  A  “  half-tone  ”  gives  one  an  idea  of  the  bloom 
which  no  words  can  convey.  Sometimes,  however,  the  individu¬ 
ality  of  the  floret  needs  special  notice,  and  it  is  often  impossible 
to  tell  from  the  loose  description  of  florists  whether  they  are 
describing  the  blossom  or  the  floret.  Illustrations  are  needed  to 
give  general  effect,  and  botanical  terms  to  describe  particular 
effects.  No  descriptions  can  convey  the  idea  of  the  form,  com¬ 
pactness  or  looseness,  regularity  or  irregularity  of  the  blossom  so 
well  as  a  picture  does.  The  floret,  however,  can  sometimes  be 
described  by  words  that  are  helpful  to  the  imagination. 
“  Ostrich  plume  ”  is  a  fanciful  and  attractive  name,  but  it  has  no 
place  in  botany.  “Hairy”  is  the  proper  term.  A  head  of 
florets  like  No.  13  (Fig.  88)  gives  the  general  effect  of  hairiness, 
and  it  takes  a  second  look  to  determine  that  the  individual  florets 
are  irregularly  cut,  but  do  not  have  hairs  or  trichomes,  as  do 
florets  4  and  5. 

Cataloguers  should  distinguish  between  a  floret  and  its  margin  ; 
for  example,  a  reflexed  floret  may  also  have  its  margins  reflexed 
(No.  2);  an  incurved  floret  may  be  ligulate  (No.  6),  tubular 
(No.  13),  or  have  its  margins  incurved  (No.  7).  Unfortunately, 
it  is  impossible  to  indicate  such  various  degrees  of  tubularity  as  are 
successfully  presented  by  the  florets  No.  13  to  7.  Nos.  12  and  13 
are  properly  called  tubular,  and  No.  11  quilled.  The  ligulate 
form  of  petal  is  conceived  to  have  been  originated  by  the  splitting 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


221 


of  a  tubular  form.  This  theory  is  well  illustrated  by  florets  13  to 
6.  In  No.  9,  half  of  the  floret  shows  the  tubular  origin,  and 
half  is  ligulate.  Whether  the  opposite  tendency  for  ligulate  to 
produce  tubular  forms  exists,  is  a  question.  Possibly  Nos.  7,  15 
and  1 6  might  be  regarded  as  transitional  forms  from  the  ligulate 
to  the  tubular.  It  is  often  important  to  distinguish  whether  a 
floret  is  ligulate  or  whether  the  margins  are  incurved.  For 
example,  single,  intense,  vivid  colors  are  probably  best  displayed 
by  a  ligulate  floret.  Crimsona  (No.  6)  is  a  case  in  point.  The 
color  of  Miss  Helyett  is  a  similar  shade,  but  the  general  effect  is 
ruined  (for  some  at  least)  by  a  distracting  element :  the  margins 
of  the  florets  are  turned  in  so  much  that  florists  would  say,  ‘  ‘  it 
shows  the  under  side.  ’  ’ 

Various  types  of  chrysanthemum  florets  are  shown,  natural  size, 
in  Fig.  88.  No.  1  is  a  ligulate  floret  which  was  incurved  in  the 
bloom  ;  No.  2  stood  reflexed  in  the  flower,  margins  revolute  ; 
No.  3,  floret  doubly  curved,  is  cupped  at  base  and  top  and  high 
in  the  middle  ;  No.  4,  incurved  as  it  stood  in  the  flower,  hairy- 
tipped,  cupped,  but  the  character  not  showing  well  in  the  cut 
(Mrs.  Higinbotham)  ;  No.  5,  incurved  in  the  flower,  hooded  and 
hairy-tipped  ;  No.  6,  ligulate  floret  (Crimsona)  ;  No.  7,  tubular 
below,  broadly  ligulate  above,  the  margin  incurved ;  No.  8,  greater 
part  of  the  floret  tubular  ;  No.  9,  to  be  compared  with  No.  7  ;  No. 
10,  a  partially  tubular  floret,  with  very  slender  base,  and  strongly 
involute  blade  ;  No.  11,  quilled  floret ;  No.  12,  tubular,  straight 
(Iora)  ;  No.  13,  tubular  and  curved  or  hooked,  the  apex  cut  or 
laciniate  (Mrs.  R.  W.  E-  Murray)  ;  No.  14,  deeply  cut  or  laciniate 
(Mrs.  W.  H.  Rand)  ;  No.  15,  broad  at  base,  twisted  above  (Ezeta); 
No.  16,  floret  twisted  throughout  (Shavings). 

Color  problems  (. Mr .  Miller ). — In  consulting  catalogues  of 
chrysanthemums  for  the  purpose  of  verifying  new  varieties,  some 
very  perplexing  color  problems  were  encountered.  Much  of  this 
confusion  can  never  be  straightened  out,  because  color  is  a  sub¬ 
jective  phenomenon.  It  exists  in  the  minds  of  men,  rather  than 
in  nature.  But  there  are  certain  practical  suggestions  which  can 
be  made  to  flower  dealers,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  general 
principles  can  be  educed.  Cataloguers  of  new  varieties  should  not 


222 


Bulletin  112. 


attempt  to  make  very  fine  and  subtle  distinctions,  nor  should  they 
use  such  seductive  phrases  as  “soft  dove  colored,  ”  ‘  ‘fawn  colored,” 


etc.  Men  who  write  of  colors  should  be  examined  for  color  blind¬ 
ness,  so  that  they  may  know  their  own  limitations.  The  great 


r.  Georges  Biron.  Natural  size . 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


223 


practical  reason  against  using  words  expressing  fine  shades  of 
color  is  that  these  words  mean  very  different  things  to  different 
persons.  It  is  hard  enough  to  get  people  to  agree  on  such  staple 
colors  as  red,  blue,  green  and  yellow.  What  the  florists  of  the 
country  need  is  a  cheap  chart  of  colors,  containing  simply  the 
common  names  and  the  common  colors.  This  matter  has  been 
agitated  for  several  years.  Mr.  F.  Schuyler  Mathews,  a  well 
known  artist  and  colorist,  prepared  a  chart  for  the  use  of  florists, 
which  was  published  as  a  supplement  to  the  American  Florist  of 
Aug.  17,  1895.  It  is  an  excellent  and  worthy  attempt,  and  is  a 
distinct  gain  to  the  profession  ;  but  it  has  the  fault  of  containing 
too  many  uncommon  and  unimportant  colors  and  names  of  colors. 
“Dull  ultramine  (blue,  grayish)”  is  too  long  for  ordinary  use. 
Even  if  the  florist  were  capable  of  distinguishing  between  Mr. 
Mathews’s  “  salmon,”  “  salmon  pink  ”  and  “  reddish  salmon,” 
these  names  would  never  be  attractive  names  for  the  description 
of  flowers.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  people  would  care  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  lilac  and  light  lilac.  Horticulturists  ought  to  agree  upon 
twenty  or  thirty  common  names  of  colors  and  then  secure  the  prep¬ 
aration  of  a  chart  to  correspond  with  these  common  names.  We 
need  colors  for  the  names  in  common  use. 

People  must  not  expect  too  much  of  color  charts.  They  should 
realize  (as  Mr.  Mathews  does)  that  pigments  cannot  compete  with 
the  colors  of  nature.  Pigments  are  dead,  petals  are  alive.  More¬ 
over,  neither  pigments  nor  petals  correspond  with  the  colors  of 
the  solar  spectrum.  It  is  doubtful  if  Mr.  Mathews  is  warranted 
in  calling  his  colors  “absolutely  true.”  They  may  be  correct 
from  the  pigmental  or  chemical  standpoint,  or  from  the  stand¬ 
point  of  technical  or  trade  nomenclature,  but  it  is  a  question  if 
these  are  to  be  the  standards  of  absolutely  true  colors.  The  fact 
is  that  there  is  no  absolute  standard  of  color.  Lapis  lazuli  and 
bichromate  of  potash  may  furnish  very  stable  and  constant  pig¬ 
ments,  but  these  materials  and  all  others  have  decided  limitations. 
These  limitations  must  be  understood,  or  there  will  always  be  dis¬ 
appointment,  no  standard  in  common  use,  and  the  consequent 
mutual  charges  of  dishonesty  and  color  blindness. 

There  are  one  or  two  suggestions  which  I  offer  in  the  hope 
that  they  may  be  of  some  practical  help  to  those  selecting  varie- 


224 


Bulletin  112. 


ties.  The  first  suggestion  is  intended  for  those  who  grow  chrys¬ 
anthemums  on  a  small  scale,  who  wish  the  best  of  the  new 
varieties,  and  cannot  afford  to  experiment  with  many.  This 
suggestion  is  that  such  growers  select  of  new  varieties  only  those 
which  have  a  single  color.  It  is  early  enough  to  get  those  varieties 
containing  combinations  of  two  or  more  colors  after  they  have 
stood  the  test  of  a  year’s  experience  with  the  market.  People 
like  strong,  vivid,  and  highly  individualized  single  colors  in 
chrysanthemums.  There  are  only  two  sides  to  the  question  when 
a  single  pure  color  is  considered.  People  either  like  it,  or  dislike 
it.  But  when  two  colors  are  combined  there  are  infinite  possibil¬ 
ities  for  difference  in  taste.  For  example,  here  is  a  list  of  eight 
recent  chrysanthemums,  all  of  which  have  combinations  of  only 
two  colors, — Fred  Walz,  Mme.  O.  Mirabeau,  Mrs.  Potter  Palmer, 
Genevieve,  Sunset  Pink,  Mrs.  C.  Harman  Payne,  Edith  Smith 
and  Burt  Eddy.  Now,  who  is  to  decide  which  one  of  these  is  an 
inharmonious  mixture,  and  which  a  happy  combination  ?  But  the 
problem  is  even  more  complicated  than  this.  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  variety  Burt  Eddy  contains  seventy  per  cent,  of  red  (to  avoid 
confusion  I  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  the  shade)  and  thirty  per 
cent,  of  white,  on  each  floret.  Do  you  suppose  that  this  propor¬ 
tion  can  be  maintained  year  after  year  ?  Florists  know  that  com¬ 
binations  of  colors  are  very  unstable.  I  do  not  mean  to  condemn 
these  varieties  out  of  hand.  Some  of  them  may  prove  stable  as 
to  their  proportions,  and  artistic  in  effect,  but  the  ordinary  florist 
can  afford  to  wait  a  year.  The  point  is,  that  these  are  typical  of 
a  class  which  it  is  safer  for  him  not  to  buy  while  they  are  new. 

Other  mixtures  of  doubtful  value  are  Gilt  Edge,  Evening  Star, 
Miss  Sylvia  Shea,  and  Mrs.  Moses  Wentworth. 

To  illustrate  how  variable  the  amount  of  color  is,  the  case  of  the 
new  variety,  Miss  M.  M.  Johnson,  may  be  cited.  This  is  adver¬ 
tised  as  a  pure  yellow,  but  some  of  the  many  blossoms  grown  this 
year  showed  varying  amounts  of  red.  Radiance  is  another  yellow 
that  should  be  made  ‘  ‘  red  proof  ’  ’  before  being  sent  out  as  a  pure 
yellow.  Secondary  colors  appear  with  age  in  many  new  varieties 
that  have  only  one  color  at  their  best.  The  pink  that  comes  with 
age  to  Crystallina  (white)  is  attractive,  but  that  which  spreads 
over  Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher  (yellow)  makes  a  melancholy  spec- 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


2^5 


tacle.  Often  there  is  a  chance  for  difference  of  opinion.  In  any 
case,  would  it  not  be  well  for  disseminators  in  their  introductory 
notices  to  state  the  fact  of  secondary  color  appearing  with  age  ? 
An  analogous  case  is  that  of  varieties  which  show  the  center. 
Mrs.  J.  M.  Parker,  Jr. ,  and  Mme.  Carnot  are  two  of  many  new  ex- 


91. — Madame  Carnot.  Half  size. 


amples  of  this  latter  class.  The  centre  is  objectionable  in  one, 
not  objectionable  in  the  other.  It  is  a  matter  of  dollars  and  cents 
to  cut  the  flowers  of  the  former  and  sell  them  before  the  center 
shows.  But  such  judgments  are  essentially  personal.  What 
buyers  want  is  the  fact.  If  the  center  shows,  the  disseminator 
should  state  the  fact. 


226 


Bulletin  112. 


A  blue  chrysanthemum  is  not  impossible.  It  was  formerly 
taught  that  red,  yellow,  and  blue  flowers  could  never  be  gotten 
in  the  same  species.  Scientists  no  longer  believe  in  the  incompat¬ 
ibility  of  the  cyanic  and  xanthic  series  of  colors.  A  blue  chrys¬ 
anthemum  may  arise  either  from  seeds  or  “  sports.”  As  far  as 
seedlings  are  concerned,  one  would  naturally  be  tempted  to  save 
the  seeds  of  varieties  approaching  purple.  Blue  is  perhaps  most 
easily  reached  through  purple,  but  when  the  blue  is  once  obtain¬ 
ed  the  difficulty  is  to  keep  out  the  purple.  Probably  we  shall 
never  have  an  azure-blue  chrysanthemum.  Even  the  fringed 
gentian,  which  is  the  standard  for  azure-blue  among  wild  flowers, 
is  not  always  free  from  purple.  The  tendency  among  chrysan¬ 
themums  is  to  sport  towards  white,  instead  of  away  from  it.  Of 
course,  sports,  like  men  of  genius,  have  a  way  of  disregarding 
prophecies,  but  the  tendency  is  worth  pointing  out.  The  story  is 
often  repeated  that  in  the  year  386  A.  D.  the  King  of  Corea  had 
to  pay  to  the  Japanese  Emperor  a  tribute  consisting  of  red,  white, 
yellow,  blue,  and  black  chrysanthemums.  Even  granting  that 
the  tribute  was  actually  paid,  what  proof  have  we  that  the 
Japanese  word  for  blue  has  meant  the  same  thing  for  fifteen  cen¬ 
turies  ?  Moreover,  how  does  the  average  person  know  that  the 
Japanese  word  is  properly  translated?  If  those  who  are  striving 
to  produce  a  blue  chrysanthemum,  are  also  cherishing  hopes  of 
selling  it  for  $1500,  they  should  be  reminded  that  the  public  may 
not  care  for  it  when  it  is  obtained.  A  green  chrysanthemum  was 
very  rare,  but  when  the  two  plants  of  the  pink  variety  Viviand- 
Morel  sported  to  a  green  simultaneously  in  different  parts  of  Eng¬ 
land,  the  coincidence  was  barely  mentioned  in  a  British  horticul¬ 
tural  journal. 

Fragrance  (. Mr .  Miller). — Can  chrysanthemums  be  made  fra¬ 
grant  ?  Yes  and  no.  Nymphaea  is  fragrant,  but  it  is  a.small-flow- 
ered  variety.  There  are  at  least  half  a  dozen  others.  How  much 
these  can  be  developed  is  a  question.  At  any  rate,  the  large- 
flowered  varieties  will  certainly  never  all  be  fragrant.  They  are 
valued  for  other  things.  If  odor  is  associated  with  hereditary 
constitution,  the  chances  are  small  for  making  the  genus  crysan- 
themum  a  fragrant  one.  People  are  not  looking  to  the  chrysan¬ 
themums  for  odor,  but  simply  for  form,  color,  and  texture.  Fra- 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


227 


gratice  would  have  to  be  very  emphatic  to  make  any  impression 
beside  a  flower  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter.  And  besides, 
whatever  odor  the  flower  might  have  would  be  overpowered  by 
the  heavy  scent  of  the  foliage.  Yet  there  is  nothing  really  incom¬ 
patible  with  the  development  of  odor  in  the  large  chrysanthe¬ 
mums.  Nymphaea  has  been  forced  to  grow  flowers  four  inches 
across.  * 

II.  Test  of  Novelties. 

In  judging  new  varieties,  we  have  this  year  divided  all  the 
chrysanthemums  into  very  good,  good,  poor,  and  intermediate. 
The  word  intermediate  does  not  appear  in  the  list,  however,  be¬ 
cause  it  was  thought  best  not  to  try  to  describe  the  shades  of 
merit  between  “good”  and  “poor.”  When,  therefore,  there  is 
no  comment  upon  the  merit  of  the  variety,  it  is  to  be  understood 
that,  in  our  test,  the  variety  seemed  to  be  only  intermediate 
or  indifferent  in  quality.  There  are  so  many  good  and  vefy  good 
chrysanthemums  on  the  market  that  it  is  necessary  to  measure 
new  varieties  by  a  high  standard.  If  the  present  judgments 
seem  to  imply  a  rigorous  standard,  it  is  certainly  not  so  severe 
as  the  test  of  time.  It  is  safe  to  prophecy  that  most  of  the  new 
varieties  of  1895  will  not  be  for  sale  five  years  from  now. 

The  most  complete  adaptation  to  current  wants  is  found  among 
white  and  yellow  chrysanthemums.  There  is  great  room  for  im¬ 
provement  in  pinks  and  dark  shades.  There  are  plenty  of  quilled 
and  hairy  pinks,  but  the  Japanese  incurved  section  possesses  no 
pink  of  the  size  and  beauty  of  Mrs.  Henry  Robinson  (white)  or 
a  dozen  yellows  that  could  be  named.  The  trouble  with  delicate 
shades  of  pink  is  that  the  color  is  rarely  evenly  diffused  and  it  often 
fades  oqt.  The  lack  of  single,  pure  colors  other  than  white,  yel¬ 
low,  and  pink,  is  very  noticeable.  Dark  reds  are  very  popular, 
and  yet  there  is  no  section  in  which  so  little  improvement  has 
been  made  as  that  represented  by  Cullingfordii,  Geo.  W.  Childs, 
John  Shrimpton,  and  Mrs.  J.  H.  White. 

In  the  description  of  varieties  below,  the  name  in  the  parenthesis 
following  the  name  of  the  variety  signifies  the  dealer  who  sent  us 
the  cuttings  ;  the  name  at  the  end  of  each  description  is  that  of 
the  introducer,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  determine  from  the  current 


228  Bulletin  112. 

literature.  The  varieties  are  arranged  alphabetically  according 
to  the  customary  rules  of  library  catalogueing,  except  that  when¬ 
ever  a  name  consists  of  two  words,  the  first  of  which  is  an  adjec¬ 
tive,  the  variety  is  indexed  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  ad¬ 
jective, — e.  g.,  Latest  Fad  is  put  under  “L”  and  ‘‘Autumn 


Leaves”  under  “A.”  Varieties  named  for  persons  are  catalo- 
logued  under  the  surname.  All  those  varieties  which  were  first 
introduced  to  the  trade  last  year  are  marked  ‘‘1895”.  Those  few 
without  dates  are  such  as  we  have  been  unable  to  trace  to  the 
introducer  ;  but  they  are  all  very  recent. 

There  are  several  matters  of  great  practical  importance  which 


92. — Crimsona.  Four-fifths  natural  size. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


229 


an  experiment  station  cannot  determine  for  the  forcing-house 
industry.  Florists  must  decide  amongst  themselves  the  shipping 
qualities  of  different  chrysanthemums  and  the  length  of  time  cut 
flowers  will  last.  These  matters  are  of  great  practical  and 
momentary  value,  but  of  little  scientific  or  permanent  importance. 
The  depot  for  such  information  should  be  the  trade  journals.  It 
is  surprising  that  greenhouse  men  do  not  supply  these  lists  to 
their  trade  papers  with  greater  frequency  instead  of  going  on  year 
after  year  making  avoidable  mistakes,  and  purchasing  experience 
dearly. 

The  following  varieties  described  in  Bulletin  91  have  been 
grown  again  this  year  with  results  similar  to  those  recorded  last 
year. — Elizabeth  B island,  Georgienne  Bramhall ,  Charlotte ,  Maud 
Dean ,  Golden  Wedding,  Mrs.  Chas.  Lanier  (better  than  we  said), 
&  Enfant  des  deux  Mondes,  Mrs.  Geo.  J.  Magee,  Mayflower, 
Mutual  Friend,  Niveus ,  Mrs.  Howard  Rinek  (worse  than  we 
said)  and  Miss  Florence  Pullman. 

Some  of  the  older  varieties,  not  mentioned  in  Bulletin  91,  have 
been  grown  again.  Of  these,  the  following  have  done  well  : — 

Callendreau,  Dr. — Similar  to  Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher. 

Comley,  fas. — A  very  good  late  variety,  dark  red,  changing  to 
carmine  and  white. 

Iora. — See  Fig.  93,  and  page  234. 

Lippincott,  Mrs.  Craig. 

Queen,  The. — Midseason  white. 

Shrimpton\John. — Type  of  Culling f or dii,  and  the  best  red  ’mum. 

Su?iderbruch,  F.  L. — Early  yellow. 

Viviand- Morel. — The  standard  pink  of  its  class,  and  still  to  be 
excelled. 

The  following  were  intermediate  in  merit :  fohn  Bunyan ,  Geo. 
S.  Conover,  Miss  Helyett,  Eva  Knowles,  SauteV s  White. 

The  following  were  poor  or  bad  :  Mrs.  fas.  Eadie,  fohn  M. 
Kupfer,  Mrs.  C.  H.  Payne,  Sylvia  Shea ,  Yellow  Queen. 

The  following  descriptions  and  estimates  of  varieties  are  made 
u.p  from  notes  taken  by  Mr.  Hunn,  Mr.  Miller  and  myself. 

The  dates  in  the  descriptions  indicate  when  the  flowers  were  at 
their  best. 


230 


Bulletin  112. 


1 

1.  Abbott,  Marion  (Smith*) — Flower  6  inches  wide,  pink,  “color  of 
La  France  rose,”  incurved,  and  slightly  hairy.  Stem  46  inches,  long  joint¬ 
ed.  Nov.  20.  (Spaulding).  1895. 

2.  Astor,  IV.  W.  (Smith) — Good.  (See  Fig.  89.)  Flower  medium  sized. 
The  single  row  of  ray  florets  white,  edged  with  pink  ;  disk  flowers  yellow, 
forming  a  high  compact  centre.  Stem  36  inches,  leaves  small,  deeply  cut. 
Claimed  to  be  an  improvement  in  size.  This  belongs  to  an  unpopular  class. 
Considered  by  gardeners  as  of  no  value  for  commercial  purposes.  Keeps 
well.  (Rob’t  Owen,  Maidenhead,  Eng.  Introduced  in  America  by  Hill  and 
Smith,  1895.) 

3.  Atkins ,  F.  L.  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches.  Florets  reflexed.  Stem  40 
inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  long  and  pointed.  Considered  by  our  gardener  a 
good  midseason  white  for  commercial  purposes.  Nov.  16.  (Pitcher  and 
Manda. )  1895. 

4.  Autumn  Leaves  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches  wide;  a  combination  of 
white,  red,  and  yellow,  the  yellow  being  confined  to  the  tips  of  the  florets. 
Habit  half  dwarf,  stem  close  jointed,  foliage  thick  and  leathery.  The  combi¬ 
nation  of  color  is  considered  a  pleasing  one  by  our  gardener.  At  best  Dec.  12. 
(Spaulding)  1895. 

5.  Bigelow ,  E.  M.  (Dornerf) — Good.  Flowers  5  to  7  inches,  with  general 

appearance  of  a  red  dahlia.  Florets  stiff,  a  few  outer  ones  reflexed.  Stem 
50  inches,  close  jointed  ;  leaves  large,  heavy,  deeply  cut.  Considered  by  our 
gardener  a  fine,  showy  variety  of  a  color  that  is  scarce  among  chrysanthe¬ 
mums.  Late.  (Dorner. )  1895. 

6.  Biron,M.  Georges  (Beckertj:) — Good.  (See  Fig.  90.)  Flower  6  inches 
in  diameter,  bizarre,  showing  chiefly  the  reverse  side  of  florets  which  are 
strongly  whorled.  Inner  side  of  florets  maroon,  reverse  amber  colored. 
Stem  42  inches,  habit  slender,  leaves  long  and  deeply  cut.  This  eccentric 
appearance  may  be  incident  to  development  or  confined  to  rare  cases,  as  the 
flower  is  advertised  to  belong  to  the  Viviand- Morel  type.  This  is  recom¬ 
mended  chiefly  for  its  oddity  and  the  attention  it  attracts.  Nov.  16.  (Cal vat. ) 
1895. 

7.  Black ,  Miss  Louise  D.  (Beckert) — Flower  4  to  5  inches  in  diameter, 
regular  and  globular,  orange-red.  Florets  small,  semi-tubular  and  tending 
to  incurve.  Stem  36  inches,  habit  slender.  A  good  variety  for  its  type  and 
color.  1895. 

8.  Bloodgood ,  Helen  (Hill$) — Good.  Flower  7  to  8  inches,  pink.  Florets 
mostly  incurved,  the  outer  ones  irregularly  .reflexed.  Stem  52  inches,  stout 
and  short  jointed  ;  leaves  deeply  cut.  An  improvement  in  pinks.  The 
shade  is  pure,  and  the  color  is  quite  evenly  spread  over  the  florets.  Nov. 
10.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

9.  Borel ,  Pres.  (Smith) — Flower  8  inches  wide,  loosely  arranged,  a  strik¬ 
ing  combination  of  purple  and  silver.  Stem  56  inches,  long  jointed,  leaves 

*Nathan  Smith  &  Son,  Adrian,  Mich.  % 

fDorner  &  Son  Lafayette,  Indiana. 

jBeckert  &  Bros.,  Glenfield,  Pa. 

£E.  G.  Hill  &  Co.,  Richmond,  Indiana. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


231 


long  and  narrow.  Nov.  18.  A  French  novelty.  The  colors  are  either  liked 
or  disliked  at  first  sight.  (Calvat.)  1895. 

10.  Brigand  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches  wide,  deep  crimson,  slightly  re¬ 
flexed.  Florets  show  yellow  reverse.  Stem  34  inches,  close  jointed,  foliage 
large  and  light  green.  At  best  Dec  12.  (Spaulding.  Raised  by  Hill.)  1895. 


93. — lor  a.  Four-fifths  natural  size. 

11.  Bronze  Giant  (Smith) — Flowers  6  inches,  compactly  incurved. 
Florets  yellow,  shaded  and  splashed  with  dark  red.  Stem  30  inches,  long 
jointed,  foliage  scant.  At  best  Dec.  5.  (Spaulding  )  1895. 

12.  Bryant ,  Mrs.  IV.  A.  (Pitcher  &  Manda*) — Flower  7  inches,  yellow. 
Habit  very  tall  and  slender ;  stem  5  to  6  feet,  long  jointed,  and  strong 


*Pitcher  &  Manda,  Short  Hills,  N.  J. 


232 


Bulletin  112. 


though  very  thin  ;  leaves  small  and  very  unhealthy.  The  color  and  form  of 
the  flower  is  similar  to  that  of  H.  L .  Sunderbruch.  Nov.  27.  (Pitcher  & 
Manda.)  1895. 

13.  Carnot,  Madam  { Smith).  Very  good..  (See  Fig.  91).  Flower  very 
large  (8  inehes  wide),  loose  and  free,  the  florets  being  very  limp  and  grace¬ 
ful  and  ligulate,  pure  white.  Outer  florets  reflexed  or  hanging,  the  inner 
ones  variously  placed.  Very  tall  (4  ft.  or  over),  the  stem  long-jointed,  and 
foliage  rather  scant.  A  long  keeper,  and  a  most  graceful  and  excellent 
white.  Nov.  10.  (Cal vat,  1894.  Introduced  in  America  by  Smith.) 

14.  Carnot,  Mademoiselle  (Beckert).  Good.  Much  like  the  last,  fully 
as  large  or  larger,  but  shows  the  center,  although  this  defect  is  not  greatly 
objectionable  in  a  flower  of  this  class.  White.  Stem  40  inches,  long- 
jointed,  the  foliage  rather  scant.  Nov.  27.  Variation  of  No.  13  ? 

Burt ,  Eddy.  (See  Eddy,  Burt). 

15.  Chipeta  (Smith) — Flowers  7  inches  wide,  closely  incurved,  showing 
only  the  reverse  side  of  the  florets,  the  color  of  which  is  compared  to  that 
of  ripened  oak  leaves.  Stem  45  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  large.  At  best 
Nov.  16.  (Smith.)  1895. 

16.  Compton ,  Miss  Georgie  (Spaulding*) — Flower  in  color  and  shade  sug¬ 
gesting  a  double  yellow  tulip.  Stem  40  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  deeply 
cut,  held  well  from  stem.  Nov.  10.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

17.  Crimsona  (Beckert) — Very  good.  (See  Fig.  92. )  Flowers  6  inches 
wide,  dark  crimson,  the  intense  color  well  displayed  by  the  ligulate  flor¬ 
ets.  Stem  40  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  large  and  deeply  cut.  Remarka¬ 
ble  for  the  vividness  of  its  deep  color,  and  the  velvety  finish  of  the  florets. 
Reverse  light  colored.  At  best  Nov.  27.  (W.  Jarvis  Smith,  Pittsburg.)  1895. 

18.  Crosby,  Emma  N.  (Smith)  —Flower  5  inches  wide,  golden.  Florets 
slightly  hairy,  the  outer  ones  reflexed  back  to  the  stem.  Habit  dwarf. 
Nov.  20.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

19.  Crystallina  (Smith) — Very  good.  Flower  5  inches  in  diameter,  globu¬ 
lar  and  distinct  in  form,  pure  white.  Florets  are  crisp,  firm,  and  stand  out 
radially.  Stem  36  inches.  At  best  Nov.  10.  This  is  recommended  for  its 
earliness,  purity  of  color,  distinctness  of  form  and  keeping  qualities.  A 
secondary  color  appears  with  age,  the  pink  being  evenly  diffused,  and  not 
displeasing.  (Vaughan.)  1895. 

20.  Darville,  Camille  (Smith) — Flower  5  inches  in  diameter,  same  form 
as  Ezeta,  pure  white.  Stem  42  inches,  short  jointed,  foliage  light  green.  At 
best  Nov.  10.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

De  Galbert  (see  Galbert). 

21.  Diavola  (Smith) — Flower  6incheswide,  darkred,  white  and  lightyel- 
low.  Reverse  of  florets  silvery  red.  Florets  very  wide  and  thick.  Stem  40 
inches,  close  jointed,  foliage  very  thick,  and  dark  green.  At  best  Dec.  12. 
(Spaulding. )  1895. 


*T.  H.  Spaulding,  Orange,  N.  J. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


233 


22.  Dinsmore ,  IV.  B.  (Pitcher  &  Manda) — Flower  6  inches  in  diameter, 
regularly  incurved,  golden.  Stem  40  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  deeply 
cut.  November  16.  Midseason.  (Pitcher &  Manda.)  1895. 

23.  Eddy ,  Burt  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches  wide.  Florets  ligulate,  purple 
and  white.  Stem  28  to  30  inches,  very  close  jointed,  foliage  small.  At 
best  Nov.  16.  (Vaughan.)  1895. 


94. — Northern  Lights.  Three-fifths  natural  size. 

24.  Egyptian ,  The  (Hill) — Same  as  Nellie  Elver  son  with  us.  (Hill.) 

25.  Elver  son,  Miss  Nellie  (Hill) — Good.  Flowers  6  inches,  incurving, 
showing  the  reverse.  Inner  side  of  florets  dark  red,  reverse  bronze.  Stem 
44  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  large.  Nov.  25.  A  good  exhibition  flower. 
(Hill.)  1895. 


234 


Bulletin  112. 


26.  Evening  Star  (Beckert) — Flower  large,  6  inches  across.  Outer  florets 
reflexed,  the  inner  ones  spreading  and  whorled,  showing  the  center,  semi- 
double  ;  color  old  gold  and  salmon.  Stocky,  30  inches  high.  Nov.  16. 
Odd. 

27.  Experiment  (Smith.)  Flowers  6  inches  wide,  white,  very  loose  and 
spreading.  Florets  narrow  and  twisted  at  the  apex.  Stem  46  inches,  leaves 
small.  Advertised  “  delicate  shrimp  pink.”  Dec.  23.  (Spaulding).  1895. 

28.  Ezeta  (Smith.)  Good.  “An  improved  Rohaillon.”  Flowers  5  inches 
in  diameter,  pure  yellow,  and  distinct  in  form.  Stem  50  inches,  close  jointed, 
leaves  large  and  thick.  At  best  Nov.  16.  The  form  of  the  flower  head  is 
globular,  the  general  effect  is  one  of  regularity.  (See  fig.  88  floret  No.  15.) 
Recommended  for  earliness,  purity  of  color,  distinctness  of  form,  and  lasting 
qualities.  (Smith).  1895. 

29.  Falconer,  Jennie  (Smith. )  Flowers  6  inches  in  diameter,  lemon  yel¬ 
low,  globular.  Florets  broad,  margins  incurved  and  cupped.  Nov.  25. 
Considered  by  our  gardener  a  very  good  midseason  yellow.  (Spaulding. )  1895. 

30.  Fitzwygram ,  Lady  (Beckert) — Poor.  Flower  4  inches,  white.  Half 
dwarf.  Not  equal  to  advertised  merits.  (H.  J.  Jones.)  1895. 

31.  Galbert ,  Mile.  M.  A.  de  (Beckert) — Flowers  6  inches,  pure  white. 

Florets  broad,  incurved,  a  few  outer  ones  reflexed.  Stem  40  inches  ;  foliage 
scant.  Nov.  19.  (D.  Calvat.)  1895. 

32.  Gardiner ,  Mrs. John  (Beckert) — Flowers  inches,  yellow,  incurved. 
Stem  32  inches,  longjointed,  leaves  small.  Early.  Nov.  3.(H.J.  Jones.)  1895. 

33.  Genevieve  (Vaughan) — Flower  medium  in  size,  5  inches  across.  Flor¬ 
ets  straight  or  slightly  reflexed,  the  inner  ones  white  and  the  outer  ones 
splashed  with  pink.  Stem  30  inches,  weak,  the  foliage  small.  Nov.  10. 
(Vaughan.)  1895. 

34.  Gilt  Edge  (Smith) — Poor.  Flowers  medium  in  size,  5  inches  across, 

the  florets  very  narrow.  Color  yellow  tipped  bronze.  Stem  30  inches,  close 
jointed.  Nov.  19.  (W.  Jarvis  Smith,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.)  1895. 

35.  Gold  Dust  (Smith) — Flower  8  inches  wide,  pure  yellow.  Inner  florets 
incurved,  outer  ones  reflexed,  and  somewhat  hairy.  Stem  28  inches,  short 
jointed,  leaves  deeply  cut  and  of  rank  growth.  Not  as  hairy  as  L' Enfant 
des  deux  Mondes.  Nov.  20.  (Hill.)  1895. 

36.  Haggard,  Rider  (Smith) — Good.  Large-flowered  anemone.  Flower 
9  to  10 ]/z  inches.  Ray  florets  light  pink,  disk  florets  a  darker  pink,  the  inner 
ones  tipped  with  yellow.  Habit  very  tall.  Stem  60  inches,  leaves  small. 
Nov.  10.  Recommended  for  its  striking  oddity.  Mrs.  F.  Gordon  Dexter. 
(picture  on  title  page  of  Bulleten  91)  gives  an  idea  of  the  form.  This  is  not  a 
new  variety,  but  the  size  has  been  greatly  increased.  Attracted  universal  at¬ 
tention  among  visitors  and  much  dislike.  (H.  J.  Jones.)  1895. 

37.  Hallowe' en  (Smith) — Very  good.  Flower  head  7  inches  wide  and  flat. 
Florets  incurved  and  quilled,  the  tubular  portion  a  lighter  pink  than  the 
ligulate  portion.  This  variety  has  as  much  individuality  as  Northern  Lights, 
which  has  similar  colors,  but  a  somewhat  different  development.  Nov.  25. 
(Hill.)  1895. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


235 


38.  Heacock ,  Esther  (Smith) — Flower  incurved,  yellow.  A  sport  from 
Ada  Spaulding.  Stem  30  inches,  close  jointed,  foliage  good.  Nov.  10. 
(Spaulding.)  1895. 

39.  Hersylea  (Sunset  Seed  and  Plant  Co.) — Flower  large,  6  inches  across. 
Outer  florets  slightly  reflexed,  the  inner  ones  upright  and  cupped.  Color 
good  golden  yellow.  Growth  rather  slender  ;  foliage  oak-leaved.  Stem  40 
inches.  Nov.  16.  (Sunset  Seed  &  Plant  Co.)  1895. 

40.  Higinbotham}  Mrs.  (Smith)  — Good.  Flower  9  inches  wide,  incurv¬ 
ing,  showing  the  center,  hairy,  pink.  Florets  incurving,  cupping,  and  even 
more  hairy  than  those  of  Louis  Boehmer.  Stem  40  inches,  close  jointed, leaves 
large  and  very  dark  green.  A  gain  in  size  over  L.  Boehmer.  Nov.  16. 
(Spaulding.  Raised  by  Hill.)  1895. 

41.  Hole ,  Dean  (Smith) — Flower  8  inches,  white  and  pink.  Stem  36  to  40 
inches,  foliage  large,  drooping  to  stem.  Nov.  26.  (May.)  1895. 

42.  Hurley ,  Mrs.  Wm.  H.  (Beckert) — Poor.  Flower  large,  6  inches 
across ;  florets  slightly  reflexed.  Color  buff1.  Growth  slender,  the  stem  20 
inches  high.  Nov.  10.  (Graham.)  1895. 

43.  Iora  (Smith) — Very  good.  (See  Fig.  93).  Not  a  new  variety. 
Flower  6  inches  in  diameter.  Florets  tubular,  pink.  The  color  is  a  delicate 
shade  evenly  diffused  throughout.  Recommended  for  exhibition  and  pot  cul¬ 
ture.  Nov.  16.  (Smith.)  1894. 

44.  Jayne  (Smith) — Flower  4  inches  wide,  dark  rose  color,  the  shade  of 
Mrs.  Murdock.  Stem  30  inches,  long  jointed,  leaves  nearly  entire.  Nov.  27. 
(Vaughan.)  1895. 

45.  Johnson ,  Miss  M.  M.  (Hill) — Very  good.  Flower  5  inches  in  diam¬ 
eter,  loosely  incurved,  globular,  golden  yellow.  Florets  wide,  incurved. 
Stem  24  inches,  foliage  good.  Recommeded  for  purity  of  color,  earliness, 
and  dwarf  habit.  Nov.  5.  (Hill.)  1895. 

46.  Lager ,  J.  E.  (Smith) — Good.  (See  title  page.)  Flower  6  inches 
wide,  bright  yellow,  irregular  in  general  form,  and  irregular  as  to  florets, 
which  show  varying  degrees  of  tubularity  and  are  irregularly  reflexed.  Stem 
40  to  45  inches  and  stout,  leaves  good.  Recommended  for  earliness,  and 
keeping  qualities.  This  is  not  as  good  as  Mrs.  IV.  H.  Rand  (see  Fig.  95), 
an  early  yellow  of  the  same  class.  Nov.  23.  (Pitcher  &  Manda. )  1895. 

47.  Latest  Fad  (Beckert) — Flower  8  inches  wide,  yellow.  Florets  tubu¬ 
lar,  the  outer  reflexed.  Stem  30  to  36  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  small. 
Dec.  5.  Considered  by  our  gardener  a  good  variety  for  growing  single 
blooms  in  pots.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

48.  Leech ,  Katherine  (Beckert) — Good.  Flower  very  large,  7  inches 
across.  Florets  loosely  reflexed,  the  central  ones  erect  or  spreading.  Color 
clear  buff.  Strong,  short-jointed  grower,  25  to  30  inches  high.  Nov.  16. 
(Graham.)  1895. 

49.  Masse ,  Marie  (Beckert) — Flower  medium  in  size,  the  florets  reflexed. 
Color  pink,  with  a  purple  tinge.  Very  early  and  dwarf.  Stem  12  inches. 
Oct.  20.  English. 


95- — Mrs.  W.  H.  Rand.  Five-eighths  natural  size , 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


237 


50.  Meige ,  La  (Beckert) — Flower  5  inches  wide,  white.  Florets  broad, 
waxy.  Stem  28  inches,  close  jointed,  deeply  cut.  Very  late.  Dec.  26. 
(Cal  vat.)  1895. 

51.  Millbrook  (Dorner) — Very  good.  Flower  7  inches,  tubular.  The 
ligulate  portion  of  florets  a  bright!  red,  tubular  portion  a  salmon  bronze, 
Stem  40  to  55  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  large  and  held  well  to  flower.  The 
combination  of  colors  is  unique,  and  attractive.  Nov.  20.  (Dorner.)  1895. 

52.  Mirabeau ,  Mme.  Octavie  (Beckert) — Good.  Flower  rather  large. 
Florets  long  and  loose,  color  a  delicate  shade  of  silvery  pink.  Stem  30 
inches  high,  long  jointed.  Nov.  28.  Very  attractive  and  odd. 

53.  Moliny  Mme .  C.  (Beckert) — Flower  8  inches,  loosely  arranged,  pure 
white.  Outer  florets  reflexed.  Stem  40  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  light 
green,  long.  Nov.  25.  (Calvat.)  1895. 

54.  M or  title  t ,  M.  de  (Beckert) — Flower  5  inches  wide,  incurved.  Outer 
florets  red,  inner  bronze  and  yellow,  reverse  buff.  Stem  44  inches,  foliage 
unhealthy.  (Calvat.)  1895. 

55.  Murdock ,  Mrs.  S.  7.. '(Dorner) — Flower  6  to  7  inches,  incurved,  pink. 
Stem  36  to  40  inches,  very '.short  jointed,  leaves  large,  deeply  cut,  dark  green. 
Nov.  25.  (Dorner.)  1895. 

56.  Murray ,  Mrs.  R.  W.  E.  (Beckert) — Very  good.  Flower  5  inches  wide, 
4  inches  deep,  white,  loosely  incurved  showing  centre.  Florets  are  cut  or 
toothed  in  such  a  manner  as  totgive  the  general  effect  of  hairiness.  (See 
Fig.  88,  No.  13.)  Stem  46  inches,  close  jointed,  leaves  small.  A  good  late 
exhibition  variety.  Recommended  for  purity  of  color,  individuality  of 
form,  and  lateness.  Centre’  notsobjectionable.  Stands  test  of  close  scrutinv 
as  well  as  that  of  general  effect.  Not  to  be  confused  with  Mr.  R.  W.  E. 
Murray.  (Syn.  Mrs.  Geo.  W.  Pullman.)  (H.  J.  Jones,  England.)  1895. 

57.  Noisette ,  Paul  (Vaughan*) — Flower  of  medium  size,  4  inches  across. 
Outer  florets  reflexed,  the.iinner  ones  incurved.  Color  dull  yellow.  Dwarf 
( 15  inches  high).  The  foliage  small.  Nov.  10.  (Vaughan.)  1895. 

58.  Northern  Lightsi{ Beckert) — Very  good.  (See  Fig.  94. )  Flower  8 

inches  in  diameter,  quilled,  pink.  Stem  46  inches,  close  jointed,  foliage 
very  good.  Mid  season.  Nov.  25.  Recommended  for  distinctness  of  form, 
and  keeping  qualities.  The  spiral  condition  of  development  shown  in  Fig. 
94  is  succeeded  by  stages  1  of  growth  that  are  perhaps  even  more  attractive. 
(W.  Jarvis  Smith,  Pittsburg. )  1895. 

59.  Nyanza  (Smith) — Good.  Flower  6  inches  in  diameter,  high  built. 
Florets  incurved,  cherry  red,ireverse  golden,  very  broad  and  strong.  Stem 
45  inches,  close  jointed  ;  leaves  finely  cut.  Suitable  for  cutting  Nov.  20.  In 
fine  condition  Nov,  27.  Striking  form  and  color.  Keeps  well.  (Smith. )  1895. 

60.  Oakland  (Dorner) — Good.  Flower  6  inches  in  diameter,  dark  red 
or  terra  cotta,  very  double  and  spherical.  Outer  florets  reflexed,  inner 
ones  slightly  incurved,  the’  margins  revolute  in  every  case.  Stem  50  to  60 
inches.  At  best  Nov.  5.  Good  Nov.  25.  Recommended  for  distinctness  of 
form  and  color,  earliness  and. keeping  qualities.  (Dorner.)  1895. 


*J.  C.  Vaughan,  Chicago. 


238 


Bulletin  112. 


61.  Octoroon  (Smith) — Flower  resembles  Nellie  Elverson.  Stem  40 
inches,  close  jointed  ;  leaves  dark  green,  thick  and  stiff.  Dec.  5.  (Smith.) 

1895. 

62.  O' Farr  el,  Miss  Elma  (Dorner) — Good.  Flower  medium  sized,  very 
evenly  reflexed,  magenta  red.  Stem  36  to  40  inches,  close-jointed,  leaves 
deeply  cut  and  drooping  to  stem,  held  well  up  to  flower.  Dec.  12.  Recom¬ 
mended  for  those  who  desire  a  dark  red,  late  in  the  season.  (Dorner.)  1895. 


63.  Orange  Child  (Beckert) — Poor.  Flower  medium  in  size,  4  inches 

across,  zinnia-shaped.  Color  dull  yellow.  Half-dwarf;  foliage  small. 
Nov.  16.  (W.  Piercy,  Forest  Hill,  London.) 

64.  Palmer ,  Mrs.  Potter  (Hill) — Flower  7  inches  wide.  Florets 
incurved  of  heavy  texture,  rose  pink  with  silver  reverse.  Stem  46  inches, 
long  jointed,  foliage  dark  green.  A  show  variety  with  good  keeping  quali¬ 
ties.  Nov.  16.  (Walz.)  1895. 

65.  Parker  Jr.,  Mrs.  J.  M.  (Hill) — Flower  6  inches  wide,  pink,  showing 
the  centre.  Outer  florets  somewhat  tubular.  Stem  30  inches.  Must  be  cut 
early  as  the  centre  is  a  decided  disadvantage.  The  shade  of  pink  is  equal  to 
that  of  Viviand- Morel,  but  scarcely  better.  Very  early.  At  best  Nov.  8. 
(Spaulding.)  1895 

66.  Pauckoucke,  M.  (Beckert) — Flower  10  inches,  lemon  colored,  loose 
and  sprawling,  the  outer  florets  drooping  to  the  stem  ;  inner  florets  twisting 
toward  centre.  Stem  44  inches,  very  stocky,  close-jointed,  leaves  large. 
Nov.  10.  Calvat.)  1895. 

67.  Pauckoucke,  Mile.  Theresa  (Beckert) — Flower  8  inches  wide,  pure 
white.  Stem  46  inches.  Dec.  12.  (Calvat.)  1895. 

68.  Philadelphia  { Hill) — Good.  Flowers  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter,  light 
yellow,  loosely  incurved  and  whorled.  The  color  changes  with  growth 
toward  creamy  white,  the  tips  of  florets  being  somewhat  darker.  Stem  36 
inches,  stiff,  close- jointed.  Nov.  16.  Recommended  for  its  class.  (Graham.) 

1895. 

69.  Pitcher ,  Miss  Georgiana  (Pitcher  and  Manda) — Very  good.  Flower 
6  inches  in  diameter,  globular,  loosely  incurved,  bright  yellow.  Type  of 
Golden  Dragon.  Stem  36  inches,  unusually  stout,  foliage  broad,  thick  and 
rank.  Nov.  10.  (Pitcher  and  Manda.)  1895. 

70.  Radiance  (Hill) — Poor.  Flower  6  inches  in  diameter,  golden,  loosely 

incurved.  Florets  wide.  Habit  dwarf.  Stem  24  inches.  Early.  Keeps 
well,  but  is  by  no  means  pure  yellow  as  advertised.  Much  red  is  irregularly 
distributed.  Nov.  10.  (Hill. )  1895. 

71.  Rand,  Mrs .  IV.  H.  (Hill) — Very  good.  (See  Fig.  95.)  Flowers  8 
inches  wide,  pure  yellow,  looking  like  a  mass  of  tangled  yellow  thread. 
Florets  show  much  irregularity  especially  in  the  degree  of  lacination  and 
tubularity.  Stem  24  to  30  inches,  leaves  small.  Recommended  for  earli¬ 
ness,  purity  of  color,  individuality  of  form,  and  remarkable  keeping  quali¬ 
ties.  Comments  on  the  form  ranged  from  “informal,”  “free,”  “pleasing,” 
and  “irregular,”  to  “odd,”  “fantastic”  and  “eccentric.”  It  is  worth 


The  1895  ChrYvSAnthemums. 


239 


noticing  that  the  individual  florets  are  far  more  irregular  than  the  flower 
head  in  its  general  effect.  Compare  J.  E.  Lager ,  title  page.  Nov.  10. 
(Vaughan.)  1895. 

72.  Reynolds ,  Maud  D.  (Smith) — Flower  9  inches,  high  built,  canary 
yellow.  Outer  florets  reflexed  irregularly.  Stem  38  inches,  close  jointed. 
Nov.  25.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

73.  Robinson ,  Mrs.  Henry  (Beckert,  Smith). — Very  good.  (See  Fig.  96.) 
Flower  7  to  9  inches  in  diameter,  globular,  incurved,  pure  white.  Florets 
wide.  Stem  36  inches,  foliage  good.  Nov.  10.  Recommended  for  great  size, 
purity  of  color,  earliness,  and  keeping  qualities.  A  popular  vote  of  visitors 
would  probably  have  given  this  the  first  place  over  the  entire  collection. 
(Pitcher  and  Manda.)  1895. 

74.  Rieman ,  W.  H.  (Hill) — Flower  6  inches  in  diameter,  incurved,  very 
high  built,  yellow.  Outer  florets  often  tubular.  Stem  30  inches,  close  joint¬ 
ed,  foliage  well  up  to  flower.  Nov.  24.  (Hill.)  1895. 

75.  Shavings  (Smith) — Good.  (See  Fig.  97.)  Flower  small,  only  3 
inches  in  diameter,  unique  in  form.  Florets  twisted  and  curled,  inner  side 
reddish,  outer  bronze  or  straw  colored.  Stem  36  inches,  close  jointed, 
foliage  good.  Midseason.  Nov.  16.  Recommended  solely  for  its  novelty, 
and  oddity.  (Vaughan).  1895. 

76.  Smith ,  Mrs.  A.  W.  (Beckert) — Flower  rather  large.  Florets  reflex¬ 
ed.  Color  shell  pink.  Of  Viviand-Morel  type  of  color.  Four  feet  high,  close 
jointed,  the  foliage  deeply  cut.  Nov.  19.  (W.  Jarvis  Smith,  Pittsburg.)  1895. 

77.  Spaulding ,  Mrs.  Gladys  (Hill) — Good.  Flower  4  to  6  inches  in 
diameter,  high  built,  white,  incurved.  Stem  32  inches,  long  jointed,  leaves 
small.  At  best  Nov.  10.  Good  Nov.  25.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

78.  Starin ,  Mrs.  J.  H.  (Smith) — Good  to  very  good.  Flower  large, 
about  6  inches  across  and  5  inches  high.  A  few  outer  florets  reflexed,  the 
remainder  incurved.  White.  Stem  nearly  4  ft.,  strong.  Nov.  25.  One  of 
the  best  midseason  and  long-keeping  whites.  (Pitcher  &  Manda).  1894. 

79.  Sunrise  (Smith) — Flower  9  inches  wide,  showing  centre.  Florets 
broad,  of  heavy  texture,  terra  cotta,  reverse  old  gold.  Stem  40  inches  close 
jointed  ;  leaves  large  and  thick.  Nov.  10.  Same  class  as  Eva  Knowles. 
(May.)  1895. 

80.  Sunset  Pink  ^o-.nset  Seed  &  Plant  Co.) — Flower  large,  7  inches 
across.  Outer  florets  horizontal,  the  inner  incurved  and  making  a  high 
center.  Color  pink.  Stem  40  inches  high,  short-jointed.  Nov.  19.  1895. 

81.  Thalia  ( Smith) — Flowers  6  to  7  inches  in  diameter.  Florets  lavender, 
opening  loosely  but  incurving  to  a  firm  head.  Stem  40  inches,  very  close 
jointed,  foliage  large,  drooping,  completely  covering  the  stem.  Nov.  10. 

•  (Smith.)  1895. 

82.  Trilby  (Smith)  — Flower  6  inches  wide,  pure  white.  Florets  of  very 
heavy  texture,  the  outer  reflexed.  Stem  36  inches,  close  jointed,  foliage 
large,  dark  green,  drooping  to  stem.  Dec.  10.  (May.)  1895. 


240 


Bulletin  112 


83.  Troy ,  /.  H.  (Smith) — Flower  5  inches  in  diameter,  incurved  Japan¬ 
ese,  pure  white.  Stem  40  inches,  close  jointed,  foliage  scant.  (Advertised 
to  be  ready  for  cutting  Oct.  5  to  9. )  This  would  rank  very  high  among  the 
early,  pure  white,  incurved  varieties  if  it  were  not  so  much  exceeded  in  size 
and  form  by  Mrs.  Henry  Robinson.  Nov.  10.  (Pitcher  &  Manda. )  1895. 


96. — Mrs.  Henry  Robinson.  Half  size. 

84.  Valleau ,  Marie  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches  in  diameter,  globular,  light 
pink,  slightly  hairy.  Florets  broad,  heavy  texture,  the  outer  reflexed. 
Stem  40  to  45  inches,  short  jointed,  leaves  large,  deeply  cut,  and  held  well 
from  the  stem.  Nov.  20.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


241 


85.  Wakeley,  Dr.  A.  W.  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches  in  diameter.  Florets 
wide,  incurved,  loosely  arranged,  light  red,  with  light  pink  reverse.  Stem 
24  inches;  leaves  small.  At  best  Nov.  20.  (Spaulding.)  1895. 

86.  Walz,  Fred  (Bock) — Flower  5  inches  wide,  pink  and  white.  Re¬ 
verse  and  tips  of  inner  florets  silvery.  Stem  30  inches.  Nov.  16.  (Bock.) 

1895. 

87.  White ,  Mrs.  J.  H.  (Hill) — Flower  6  to  7  inches,  reflexed,  crimson, 
Stem  30  to  40  inches,  short  jointed,  foliage  very  thick.  It  seems  doubtful 
whether  this  is  any  improvement  in  the  much  desired  dark  shades  of  which 
Culling fordii  is  the  historic  example.  There  was  considerable  variation 
among  the  specimens  as  to  time  and  manner  of  blooming,  color  and  stature. 
Neither  was  “  extra  dwarf.”  1895. 

88.  Wynne ,  Rose  (Smith) — Flower  very  large,  7  inches  across,  loose,  sil¬ 
very  pink.  Stem  3  feet,  very  stout  and  close  jointed,  and  of  distinct  ap¬ 
pearance.  Nov.  16.  (Rob’t  Owen,  Maidenhead,  Eng.,  1894.  Introduced  in 
America  by  Hill,  1895). 

89.  Zipangi  (Smith) — Flower  6  inches  wide,  very  high  built.  Outer 
florets  reflexed  showing  dark  red,  inner  ones  incurved  showing  buff"  reverse. 
Stem  48  inches  ;  leaves  large.  Nov.  16.  (Smith.)  1895. 

90.  Zulinda  (Smith) — Flower  similar  to  that  of  Halloween,  but  smaller. 
Stem  34  inches,  very  close  jointed  ;  leaves  large,  very  dark  green.  Dec.  5. 
(Smith.)  1895. 

Mr.' Miller's  synopsis  of  varieties. — The  names  of  the  varieties 
in  the  following  selection  are  not  arranged  in  a  fashion  that  is  de¬ 
signed  to  be  complete  or  systematic,  but  simply  helpful.  The  ar¬ 
rangement  aims  to  save  persons  of  limited  time  the  labor  of  reading 
through  a  long  list  of  new  varieties  alphabetically  arranged.  Flor¬ 
ists,  gardeners  and  others  who  visited  our  forcing-houses  were  con¬ 
stantly  asking  such  questions  as  these  :  “  Where  is  your  biggest 
blossom?”  “Have  you  any  good  pink  varieties?”  “What 
new  colors  are  there  in  hairy  varieties  ?”  “  Will  you  give  me  the 

names  of  some  good  quilled  sorts  ?”  The  following  list  attempts 
to  answer  just  such  questions  : 

Varieties  of  great  size. — Mrs.  Henry  Robinson,  Rider  Haggard, 
Mrs.  Higinbotham,  Helen  Bloodgood,  Mrs.  W.  H. 
Rand,  Northern  Tights. 

Varieties  of  single,  strong  colors. — 

White. — Mrs.  Henry  Robinson,  Crystallina,  Mrs.  R.  W. 
E.  Murray. 

Yellow. — Mrs:  W.  H.  Rand,  Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher,  Ezeta, 
Miss  M.  M.  Johnson. 


242 


Bulletin  112. 


Pink  — Helen  Bloodgood,  Mrs.  Higinbotham. 

Crimson. — Crimsona. 

Dark  red. — Miss  Elma  O’Farrell,  Oakland. 

Good  combinations  of  color. — W.  W.  Astor,  Millbrook. 

Early  varieties. — 

White. — Mrs.  Henry  Robinson,  Crystallina. 

Yellow. — Mrs.  W.  H.  Rand,  Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher,  Miss 


97. — Shavings.  Natural  size. 


M.  M.  Johnson. 

Eight  yellow. — Philadelphia. 

Pink. — Mrs.  Higinbotham,  Marie  Masse. 
Dark  red. — Oakland. 

Midseason  varieties. — 

White. — F.  E.  Atkins. 

Yellow. — Ezeta. 

Crimson. — Crimsona. 

Eate  varieties. — 

White. — Mrs.  R.  W.  E.  Murray. 


The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 


243 


Red. — E.  M.  Bigelow,  Miss  Elma  O’ Farrell. 

Tall. — Rider  Haggard,  Oakland. 

Dwarf. — Miss  M.  M.  Johnson,  Marie  Masse,  Paul  Noisette. 

Hairy. — Mrs.  Higinbotham. 

Quilled. — Hallowe’en,  Northern  Eights,  Millbrook. 

Tubular. — Iora,  Mrs.  R.  W.  E.  Murray. 

Keeping  qualities. — Crystallina,Ezeta,  Oakland,  Mrs.  W.  H.Rand, 
Mrs.  J.  H.  Starin. 

Good  for  exhibition  blooms. — W.  W.  Astor,  M.  Georges  Biron, 
Crimsona,  Crystallina,  Mrs.  Higinbotham,  Millbrook, 
Mrs.  R.  W.  E.  Murray,  Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher,  Mrs. 
Henry  Robinson,  Mrs.  W.  H.  Rand,  Northern  Eights, 
Shavings. 

Strong  individuality  of  form. — Crystallina,  Ezeta,  Shavings,  Mrs. 

W.  H.  Rand,  W.  W.  Astor,  Hallowe’en,  Northern 
Eights,  Millbrook. 

Large  Anemone. — Rider  Haggard. 

Varieties  showing  the  reverse  colors. — Miss  Nellie  Elverson,  M. 
Georges  Biron. 

Velvety  finish  of  florets. — Crimsona. 

Odd,  striking,  fanciful,  eccentric,,  etc. — W.  W.  Astor,  M.  Georges 
Biron,  Rider  Haggard,  Mme.  Octavie  Mirabeau,  Mrs. 
W.  H.  Rand,  Shavings. 

Mr.  Hunn' s  choice  of  varieties. — It  is  a  difficult  matter  among 
so  many  varieties  of  exceptional  merit  to  name  those  possessing 
the  greatest  number  of  valuable  points,  as  different  methods  of 
growing  and  varied  soils  will  often  so  change  the  character  of  a 
variety  that  one  is  compelled  to  constantly  revise  his  opinion. 

The  following  list  is  not  an  arbitrary  selection,  but  it  simply 
gives  the  results  obtained  here  in  1895  : 


Early. 

Mrs.  Henry  Robinson, 
Madame  Carnot, 
Crystallina, 

Miss  Gladys  Spaulding, 


White. 

Late. 

The  Queen, 

Mile.  Carnot, 

F.  E.  Atkins, 

Mrs.  J.  H.  Starin, 

Mrs.  R.  W.  E.  Murray 


244 


Bulletin  112. 


Pink. 

Northern  Lights, 

Mrs.  S.  T.  Murdock, 

Marion  Abbott, 

Marie  Valleau. 

Yellow. 

W.  B.  Dinsmore, 

Jennie  Falconer, 

Ezeta, 

W.  H.  Rieman. 

Red. 

E.  M.  Bigelow, 

Nyanza, 

Crimsona, 

Miss  Nellie  El  verson, 

Millbrook, 

Diavola, 

Hallowe’en. 

Mr.  Bailey' s  choice  of  six. — 

1.  Mrs.  Henry  Robinson  (Fig.  96). 

2.  Mrs.  W.  H.  Rand  (Fig.  95). 

3.  Crimsona  (Fig.  92). 

4.  Iora  (Fig.  93). 

5.  Madame  Carnot  (Fig.  91). 

6.  Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher. 

In  this  test  of  90  novelties,  we  thought  that  the  following 
twelve  showed  superlative  (“very  good’’)  merits  (excluding 
the  varieties  which  are  simply  odd  or  curious)  :  Madame 
Carnot,  Crimsona,  Crystallina,  Hallowe’en,  Iora,  Miss  M.  M. 
Johnson,  Millbrook,  Mrs.  R.  W.  E.  Murray,  Northern  Eights, 
Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher,  Mrs.  W.  H.  Rand,  Mrs.  Henry  Robinson. 

E.  H.  Bailey, 
Wilhelm  Miller, 
C.  E.  Hunn. 


Iora, 

Helen  Bloodgood, 

Mrs.  Potter  Palmer, 

Mrs.  J.  M.  Parker,  Jr. 

Mrs.  W.  A.  Rand, 

J.  E.  Eager, 

Miss  Georgiana  Pitcher, 
Eouise  A.  Black, 

Mrs.  M.  M.  Johnson. 

M.  Georges  Biron, 

Mrs.  J.  H.  White. 


Bulletin  113.  February,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


t  • 

By  E.  Q.  LODEMAN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 

Hon.  A.  D.  White,  -  -  -  Trustee  of  the  University. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -  President  State  Agricultural  Society. 


Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ------  Director. 

E.  L.  Williams,  ------  Treasurer. 

H.  W.  Smith,  ------  clerk. 


ASSISTANTS 


M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plum. 

107.  Wireworms  and  The  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  The  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  20,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner,  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir : — For  a  number  of  years  the  farmers  of  western  New  York 
have  been  asking  for  light  upon  the  insidious  and  serious  diseases 
of  the  potato  crop.  A  special  effort  has  been  made  during  the 
past  season  to  study  these  troubles,  and  although  the  season  was 
unusually  dry  and  therefore  not  very  productive  of  some  diseases, 
the  results  of  the  investigations  seem  to  be  so  useful  that  they  are 
submitted  for  publication  and  distribution  under  Chapter  230  of 
the  Laws  of  1895.  L.  H.  Bailey. 


SYNOPSIS. 

Part  I.  Fungi.  Pages  249  to  273. 

A.  Descriptions  of  the  fungous  diseases,  249  to  264. 

1.  Potato  rot,  late  blight,  or  downy  mildew,  249. 

2.  Early  blight,  or  leaf-blight,  254. 

3.  Potato  scab,  261. 

B.  Treatments  of  the  fungous  diseases,  264  to  274. 

1.  Potato  rot  or  late  blight,  264. 

2.  Early  blight,  265. 

3.  Potato  scab,  271. 

Part  II.  Insects,  274  to  277. 

1.  Potato  beetle,  274. 

2.  Flea-beetles,  275. 

Part  III.  Machinery  for  spraying  potatoes,  277  to  280. 
Summary,  281. 


Historical  Notes  on  the  Potato  Disease. 

“The  most  easy  way  to  scourge  the  land, and  force  it  to  yield  speedy  returns, 
was  by  growing  crops  of  potatoes,  which  are  largely  productive,  but  at  the 
same  time  specially  exhaustive  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  soil.  An  aver¬ 
age  crop  of  potatoes  robs  the  soil  of  the  seed  constituents  of  between  three 
and  four  average  crops  of  wheat.  The  tenants  were  too  poor,  and  if  they 
had  been  rich  had  no  inducement, by  the  tenure  of  their  land,  to  restore  to  the 
soil,  through  adequate  manuring,  the  heavy  demands  which  had  been  made 
on  its  fertility.  At  the  time  of  the  famine  in  1846,  nearly  one-fourth  of  the 
land  under  crops  was  devoted  to  potatoes.  And  even  now,  out  of  every  100 
acres  devoted  to  green  crops  in  Ireland,  71  are  still  given  to  potatoes — a  pro¬ 
portion  nearly  three  times  greater  than  that  in  Scotland,  and  six  times 
greater  than  that  of  England.  ****** 

“The  striking  deterioration  of  the  potato  produce  in  Ireland  deserves  much 
more  attention  than  it  has  received,  but  can  only  be  slightly  alluded  to  in 
the  present  essay.  From  1601,  when  Raleigh  introduced  it  into  Ireland,  the 
crop  grew  steadily  in  favor  with  the  Irish  peasantry  until  1845,  which  year 
the  largest  amount  of  acreage  was  devoted  to  it,  and  fine  crops  of  six  and 
seven  tons  to  the  acre  were  habitually  and  persistently  attained.  The  famine 
came,  and,  as  Irish  agriculturists  assert,  the  nature  of  the  potato  was  altered 
by  the  disease  of  1846,  and  its  productive  power  was  lessened  ;  at  least  this 
is  given  as  the  explanation  of  its  present  low  position  among  Irish  crops.  It 
is  no  longer  the  potato  which  is  the  farmer’s  chief  source  of  profit  in  Ireland.  ” 
(“Recess  Studies,”  edited  by  Sir  Alexander  Grant,  pp.  250-251.) 

“If,  then,  the  loss  to  Ireland  is  called  3,500,000  f,  we  should  be  glad  to 
know  how  much  the  total  loss  will  have  been  when  the  destruction  in  Eng¬ 
land,  Wales  and  Scotland,  is  taken  into  account.  To  place  the  latter  at 
1,500,000^,  is  no  very  extravagant  assumption  ;  and  if  so,  this  country  has 
lost  five  millions  of  money  by  the  Potato  murrain.”  ( Gardeners'  Chronicle , 
1846,  p.  219. 

“ Copper  Smoke  a  Preventive  of  Potato  Disease. — In  the  district  about 
Meath  and  Swansea,  “wherever  the  copper  smoke  prevails,”  was  the  expres¬ 
sion  of  an  intelligent  inhabitant  with  whom  I  fell  into  conversation,  the 
potatoes  are  sound,  and  the  same  person  informed  me  it  was  also  the  case 
last  year.  I  can  verify  the  fact  so  far  as  the  present  appearance  of  the  crop, 
as  seen  from  the  mail-coach  roof,  can  be  considered  a  verification  ;  but  I  state 
it  with  a  view  of  inducing  more  particular  inquiry  into  it.  You  are,  I  dare 
say,  aware  the  district  I  speak  of  is  crowded  with  copper  smelting  furnaces” 
( Gardeners'  Chronicle ,  1846,  p.  582). 


PART  I.  FUNGI. 


A.  DESCRIPTION  OF  FUNGOUS  DISEASES. 

7 

i.  Potato  rot  ;  rate  blight  ;  downy  mildew  ( Phytophthora 
infestans,  DeBary). — The  fungus  causing  the  common  potato  rot  is 
an  old  offender.  It  was  undoubtedly  introduced  into  Europe  with 
some  of  the  early  importations  of  the  potato,  and  has  in  certain 
years  proved  so  destructive  that  famines  have  resulted  from  the 
entire  loss  of  the  potato  crop.  Such  occurrences  eventually  lead 
to  thorough  study  of  the  organism.  As  early  as  1846,  the  fun¬ 
gus  causing  the  trouble  was  very  carefully  described  in  an  En¬ 
glish  publication,*  and  since  that  time  other  observers  have  given 
the  disease  much  attention.  It  has  spread  to  all  regions  in  which 
potatoes  are  extensively  grown,  so  that  both  scientists  and  farm¬ 
ers  are  very  familiar  with  many  of  its  characteristics. 

The  most  interesting  feature  connected  with  the  fungus  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  wonderful  energy  which  it  exhibits,  under  favorable 
conditions,  in  the  destruction  of  the  potato  plants.  It  sometimes 
spreads  with  such  rapidity  that  a  crop  may  be  ruined  in  one  or 
two  days  ;  and  unfavorable  conditions,  or  the  total  destruction  of 
the  plants,  formerly  appeared  to  be  the  only  effectual  agents  in 
preventing  or  checking  the  spread  of  the  dreaded  disease.  This 
rapid  decay  of  both  the  foliage  and  tubers  is  perhaps  the  most 
distinctive  of  those  characters  which  are  commonly  brought  for¬ 
ward  for  the  identification  of  the  disease.  It  is  almost  invariably 
accompanied  by  a  strong,  disagreeable  odor  which  is  easily  recog¬ 
nized  by  all  who  have  once  experienced  it.  When  large  fields  have 
been  attacked,  the  smell  is  particularly  strong  ;  it  then  arises  en¬ 
tirely  from  the  foliage,  and  is  not  produced  by  the  tubers. 

The  conditions  which  favor  such  rapid  decay  are,  as  a  rule,  not 
generally  present  throughout  this  state.  The  fungus  makes  its 
most  rapid  growth  in  a  temperature  of  about  70°  F.  when  much 
moisture  is  present  in  the  atmosphere.  Cloudy  days,  with  occa- 


*Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  Journal  oj  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  Vol.  I. 


250 


Bulletin  113. 


sional  showers,  and  a  close  damp  air  are  especially  favorable  to 
its  growth ;  and  if  such  periods  occur  during  August  and  Sep¬ 
tember,  the  disease  may  appear  at  any  time.  But,  on  the  contrary, 
if  the  season  is  dry  and  hot  the  fungus  is  unable  to  develop,  and 
little  or  no  injury  of  this  nature  can  appear.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  the  potato  rot  is  not  a  regular  visitor  in  most  parts  of  the 
state,  but  is  more  generally  confined  to  certain  localities.  These 
are  found  in  the  more  northern  potato  districts,  in  the  regions  near 
the  sea  coast,  and  in  some  parts  which  have  a  high  altitude.  In 
such  places  the  fungus  may  develop  regularly  every  year,  and  the 
severity  of  the  attack  will  be  modified  chiefly  by  abnormal  atmos¬ 
pheric  conditions. 

The  fungus  causing  the  late  blight  of  potatoes  passes  the  win¬ 
ter  in  two  forms.  The  mycelium,  or  vegetative  portion  of  the 
parasite,  may  retain  its  vitality  until  the  following  spring,  when 
growth  may  again  begin  and  further  attacks  of  the  fungus  take 
place.  These  are  followed  perhaps  by  less  serious  results  than 
those  which  result  from  the  other  form.  This  second  method  of 
surviving  the  winter  is  effected  by  means  of  a  small  fruiting  body 
known  as  an  oospore.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  comparatively  hard 
covering  and  is  able  to  resist  considerable  extremes  of  tem¬ 
perature  and  moisture.  The  spores  are  produced  in  the  fall  within 
the  tissues  of  the  potato  plant,  and  here  they  remain  until  the 
following  spring  or  summer.  By  the  gradual  decay  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  tissues  these  spores  become  liberated  and  when  dry  may 
easily  be  spread  over  wide  areas  by  means  of  winds  and  other 
natural  agencies.  Those  which  eventually  rest  upon  potato  fol¬ 
iage  soon  germinate  under  proper  conditions,  and  reproduce  the 
fungus  at  the  new  point  of  infection.  Here  the  development  of 
the  parasite  takes  place  so  fast  that  in  a  very  short  time  such 
places  become  centers  from  which  the  disease  is  rapidly  dis¬ 
seminated. 

The  manner  in  which  the  germ  tube  of  a  spore  penetrates  the 
tissues  is  interesting.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  ends 
of  the  tube  secrete  a  ferment  which  has  the  power  of  dissolving 
the  walls  of  the  cells  comprising  the  outer  layer  of  leaf  tissue. 
When  such  an  opening  has  been  made,  the  small  thread  of  the 
parasite  enters  and  it  then  rapidly  extends  to  other  cells,  and  soon 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


251 


the  entire  destruction  of  the  leaf  may  be  accomplished.  A 
stoma,  or  breathing  pore  may  also  serve  as  a  point  of  entrance. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  fungus  advances  within  the  leaf 
tissues  depends  very  largely  upon  external  conditions,  and  the 
appearances  of  the  affected  parts  is  also  modified  to  a  very  con¬ 
siderable  extent.  Unfavorable  conditions  frequently  render  the 
identification  of  the  parasite  a  difficult  matter  without  the  aid  of 
a  glass,  but  under  such  circumstances  the  disease  may  be  fairly 
widespread  and  still  cause  little  injury.  In  serious  attacks,  how¬ 
ever,  many  characteristic  symptoms  may  be  easily  recognized. 

The  colored  plate  represents  a  leaf  which  has  been  entered  in  sev¬ 
eral  places  by  the  fungus  causing  late  blight,  or  potato  rot.  The 
growth  of  the  parasite  has  been  rapid,  and  the  illustration  may 
be  considered  as  a  typical  example  in  which  the  normal  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  disease  was  taken  place.  The  following  points 
should  be  noted  : 

The  diseased  areas  are  of  considerable  extent,  and  possess  a 
rich  brown  color.  They  may  be  situated  in  any  part  of  the  leaf, 
but  the  edges  appear  to  suffer  more  from  new  infection  than  the 
more  central  portions  of  the  leaflets.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  case  of  rains  these  portions  remain  moist  for  a 
longer  period  than  the  center,  since  the  water  drains  to  the  lower 
parts  of  the  leaflets,  and  collects  there  in  the  form  of  drops  of 
greater  or  less  size.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  under  such  condi¬ 
tions  a  fungus  could  gain  an  entrance  more  easily  than  in  drier 
places.  The  decayed  portions  are  inclined  to  droop  ;  this  is  es¬ 
pecially  true  in  cases  of  rapid  invasions,  for  at  such  times  the 
parts  do  not  dry  so  fast  as  the  parasite  advances  The  rapid  decay 
also  prevents  the  edges  *of  the  leaflets  from  curling,  although  this 
takes  place  when  the  air  becomes  warm  and  dry. 

The  distribution  of  colors  over  the  affected  leaf  is  very  sug¬ 
gestive.  Under  normal  conditions,  the  unaffected  parts  retain  a 
deep  green  color,  while  the  diseased  area  may  be  yellowish- 
brown,  dark  brown,  or  nearly  black.  But  whatever  the  color, 
each  area  is  sharply  outlined.  There  is  no  gradual  merging  of 
one  into  the  other,  but  a  distinct  change  of  color  marks  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  the  disease.  Occasionally  another  peculiarity  may  be  no¬ 
ticed.  If  the  leaves  are  closely  examined  it  will  be  found  that 


252 


Bulletin  113. 


the  green  and  the  brown  areas  are  not  directly  in  contact  with 
each  other  ;  they  are  separated  by  a  narrow  strip  in  which  the 
green  has  been  destroyed,  and  the  brown  has  not  yet  appeared.  It 
consists  of  a  colorless  or  at  most  a  very  pale  yellow  line  in  which 
the  growth  of  the  fungus  is  probably  very  active.  But  during 
periods  which  are  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  the  parasite 
this  line  cannot  be  discerned,  and  the  green  and  brown  tissues 
are  apparently  in  contact.  Under  such  circumstances  the  identifi¬ 
cation  of  the  disease  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope  is  an  ex¬ 
ceedingly  difficult  matter.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  fungus  has 
succeeded  in  gaining  an  entrance,  and  that  it  has  advanced  a 
limited  distance  in  the  leaf  tissues.  If  at  this  time  the  weather 
should  turn  dry  and  hot,  the  development  of  the  parasites  would 
be  checked,  and  the  result  would  be  the  formation  of  a  small 
brown  spot  or  area  perhaps  near  the  edge  of  the  leaflet,  and  if 
several  such  spots  exist  the  injury  might  be  ascribed,  without 
careful  examination,  to  what  is  commonly  knows  as  the  early 
blight  fungus. 

The  name  “  downy  mildew  ”  has  been  given  to  the  potato  rot 
disease  from  the  fact  that  there  appears,  under  favorable  cir¬ 
cumstances,  a  downy  or  mouldy  growth  upon  the  under  sur¬ 
face  of  the  leaves.  This  is  white  in  color  and  may  be  of  consid¬ 
erable  density.  The  upper  surface  of  the  foliage  does  not  show  it, 
but  whenever  this  frost- like  growth  appears  on  the  under  side,  it 
is  almost  certain  that  the  potato  rot  fungus  is  present,  especially 
if  the  other  conditions  mentioned  above  are  also  present.  This 
external  growth  consists  of  spores  and  of  the  parts  bearing 
them.  The  spores,  or  conidia,  mature  very  quickly,  and  have 
the  power  of  immediately  propagating  the  fungus.  They  are 
small  and  light,  and  may  be  carried  long  distances  by  winds.  It 
is  largely  owing  to  these  bodies  that  the  progress  of  this  potato 
disease  is  so  rapid.  They  are  produced  in  countless  numbers  and 
are  very  energetic  in  attacking  healthy  tissue.  It  appears  to  be 
very  probable,  also,  that  these  conidia,  or  summer  spores,  are  the 
cause  of  the  rotting  of  the  tubers.  After  maturing  upon  the  leaf, 
some  fall  to  the  ground  and  by  means  of  water  and  other  mechan¬ 
ical  agents  they  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  tubers  growing 
underneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Here  they  germinate  and 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


253 


effect  an  entrance  in  the  same  manner  as  occurs  above  ground. 
The  color  of  the  affected  parts  also  changes,  a  brown,  dry  rot 
taking  the  place  of  the  normal  white  color  (see  Fig.  98).  The 
more  slowly  the  tubers  decay,  the  less  is  the  amount  of  moisture 
present ;  the  contrary  is  also  true.  The  decay  does  not  take  place  in 

a  uniform  manner, 
but  its  progress 
varies  in  different 
tubers.  In  some  it 
is  mostly  the  parts 
^  near  the  surface  that 

i/j 

S  are  affected,  while 
in  others  the  dis- 
•S  ease  may  advance 
|  rapidly  towards  the 
^  center  of  the  tuber, 
^  causing  theexterior 
^  to  show  a  much 
smaller  amount  of 
disease  than  is  act- 
^  ually  present.  The 
^  discoloration,  how- 
•'I  ever,  generally  pre- 
^  sents  a  uniform  ap- 
pearance.  Al- 
^ :  though  it  is  by  no 
^  means  impossible- 
^  for  the  mycelium  to 
*§  reach  the  tubers 
^  from  the  leaves  by 
I  means  of  the  stems, 
^  still  it  is  the  gen¬ 
erally  accepted 
opinion  that  infec¬ 
tion  does  not  take 
place  in  this  man¬ 
ner.  This  belief 
was  held  many  years  ago,  for  in  some  of  the  earlier  writings 
recommendations  may  be  found  in  which  very  high  hilling 


254 


Bulletin  113. 


is  advocated  so  that  the  spores  may  be  washed  past  the  tubers 
and  away  from  them,  and  not  through  the  soil  directly  to  them. 

There  is  still  another  feature  of  the  late  blight  which  it  is  well 
to  bear  in  mind.  The  disease  generally  appears  during  August 
and  September,  although  earlier  and  later  attacks  are  not  very 
rare.  Coming  so  late  in  the  season,  all  the  earlier  varieties  are 
comparatively  free  from  attack,  but  the  later  ones  are  especially 
subject  to  the  disease.  This,  however,  is  not  necessarily  due  to 
the  foliage  of  such  varieties  being  more  susceptible,  but  rather 
to  the  habits  of  the  fungus.  I  have  not  observed  that  the  age 
of  the  potato  plants  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the  spread 
of  the  disease  ;  nor  that  the  young  foliage  of  the  plants  is  less 
subject  to  the  disease.  It  appears  as  if  the  parasite  is  able  to 
thrive  upon  all  potato  foliage  which  is  in  a  healthy  condition  at 
the  time  of  the  germination  of  the  spores,  and  that  old  and  young 
foliage  or  plants  suffer  practically  to  an  equal  extent.  This  mat¬ 
ter  is  here  empasized  because  it  will  be  considered  again  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  early  blight  of  potatoes. 

2.  Early  blight  ;  Leaf- blight  ( Macrosporium  Solani ,  E. 
&  M.). — It  is  only  within  the  past  five  or  six  years  that  the  early 
blight  of  potatoes  has  been  recognized  by  scientists  and  farmers  as 
a  distinct  disease.*  The  trouble  has  been  known  during  a  longer 
period,  and  its  general  character  fairly  well  understood.  But  the 
attention  which  in  former  years  was  given  to  the  potato  rot  fun¬ 
gus  caused  this  second  disease  to  be  overlooked,  or  at  least  to  be 
regarded  as  perhaps  a  peculiar  condition  resulting  from  the  attacks 
of  late  blight,  or  from  certain  conditions  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  potato  plant.  But  since  1891  the  fact  has  been 
clearly  established  that  two  distinct  evils  have  preyed  upon  potato 
foliage,  and  since  that  time  the  second  trouble,  or,  as  it  has  been 
popularly  called,  the  “early  blight,”  has  received  considerable 
study. 

The  one  character  which  was  probably  the  most  valuable  in 
distinguishing  the  two  diseases  is  the  fact  that  plants  having  the 

*  For  bibliographies  of  the  earlier  contributions  concerning  the  early 
blight  of  potatoes,  see  Jones,  6th  Ann.  Rept.  Vt.  Agric  Exp.  Sta.  189?, 
66  et  seq.  Also  Sturgis,  /8th  Ann.  Rept.  Conn.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  1894,  127 
et  seq. 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


255 


early  blight  do  not  necessarily  have  rotten  tubers,  but  on  the  con¬ 
trary  these  are  almost  invariably  perfectly  sound,  although  small. 
The  slow  progress  of  the  disease,  and  the  peculiar  discoloration 
and  shriveling  of  the  plants  also  made  it  apparent  that  there  were 
two  distinct  diseases  affecting  the  crop. 

But  the  real  cause  of  this  trouble  has  not  been  found  with  equal 
readiness  and  certainty  as  was  the  case  with  the  potato  rot.  Al¬ 
though  at  first  it  appeared  as  if  the  entire  trouble  could  be  laid  at 
the  door  of  the  fungus  Macrosporium  Solani,  yet  later  investiga¬ 
tions  have  shown  that  the  matter  is  not  so  simple  as  at  first  ap¬ 
peared.  It  is  true  that  this  fungus  is  almost  invariably  found  in 
plants  affected  by  this  blight,  and  that  the  life  of  the  plants  is 
shortened  perhaps  to  a  considerabls  extent  by  the  fungus,  yet  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  whole  trouble  should  be  ascribed  to 
the  one  organism.  But,  before  entering  into  detailed  discussion 
concerning  the  cause  of  the  early  blight  of  potatoes,  it  may  be 
well  to  define  as  clearly  as  possible  the  trouble  which  is  generally 
designated  by  this  term. 

Upon  referring  to  the  plate  it  will  be  seen  that  the  leaf  upon  the 
right  differs  considerably  from  the  one  which  has  thus  far  been 
considered.  This  illustration  also  was  made  from  a  typical  leaf 
in  order  that  the  more  essential  features  of  the  trouble  might  be 
the  more  clearly  brought  out.  It  will  of  course  be  understood 
that  many  variations  occur,  and  that  these  are  so  great  that  fre¬ 
quently  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  with  the  naked  eye  whether 
the  phytophthora  or  the  macrosporium  is  present.  Such  cases 
are  by  no  means  rare,  and  I  have  seen  a  single  leaflet  suffering 
from  the  attacks  of  both  fungi,  as  was  proved  by  cultures,  yet  the 
two  diseased  areas  were  practically  indistinguishable.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  the  following  characters  will  be  of  assistance  in  determining 
which  of  the  two  fungi  is  responsible  for  the  trouble. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  differences  between  the  two  leaves  lie 
in  the  size,  form,  and  position  of  the  diseased  areas.  In  the  leaf¬ 
lets  affected  with  the  early  blight,  it  will  be  seen  that  these  areas 
are  small  as  a  rule,  and  that  they  are  almost  circular  in  outline 
except  where  several  have  coalesced,  in  which  case  the  entire  area 
is  of  irregular  outline  ;  but  all  inequalities  have  rounded  outlines. 
It  appears  as  if  infection  occurred  at  a  great  number  of  points, 


256 


Bulletin  113. 


instead  of  in  a  few  as  shown  in  the  other  figure.  And  it  is  also 
interesting  to  notice  that  these  many  points  of  infection  are,  with 
but  comparatively  very  few  exceptions,  placed  along  the  outer 
edges  or  periphery  of  the  leaflets.  Although  the  same  is  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  extent  also  true  with  the  other  disease,  still  the  fungus  caus¬ 
ing  the  potato  rot  does  not  confine  itself  nearly  so  persistently  to 
the  edges,  but  as  soon  as  it  is  established  it  extends  rapidly  to  all 
the  softer  tissues  of  the  leaflets  regardless  of  whether  these  are  in 
one  part  of  the  leaflet  or  in  another.  It  may  also  be  stated  of  the 
early  blight  that  frequently  the  leaf  tissue  situated  along  the  larger 
veins  succumbs  to  the  disease  more  slowly  than  do  those  portions 
which  are  further  removed  from  the  veins. 

If  these  diseased  areas  are  very  carefully  examined,  it  will  be 
found  that  it  is  a  very  common  occurrence  to  find  numbers  of  slight 
elevations  or  ridges  arranged  in  circles  about  a  common  center. 
These  may  vary  slightly  in  color,  but  they  are  perhaps  most 
noticeable  on  account  of  their  apparent  elevation.  Since  such 
ridges  are  absent,  so  far  as  my  observations  go,  in  areas  affected 
by  the  late  blight,  their  presence  is  of  considerable  value  in  de¬ 
termining  the  character  of  the  disease,  the  more  so  since  the  general 
color  of  the  parts  destroyed  is  very  similar  in  the  different  cases. 

When  the  colors  of  the  green  and  apparently  unaffected  tissues 
in  the  figures  are  compared,  another  marked  difference  will 
instantly  appear.  The  leaf  affected  with  the  late  blight  shows 
sound  healthy  tissue  up  to  the  region  penetrated  by  the  parasite. 
The  leaflets  appear  to  suffer  only  in  those  parts  actually  invaded 
by  the  mycelial  threads  of  the  fungus^  Yet  what  is  the  meaning 
of  the  yellow  color  which  pervades  almost  all  parts  of  the  other 
leaf?  No  parasite  appears  to  have  reached  these  portions,  and  yet 
they  are  manifestly  unhealthy.  Two  explanations  might  be 
advanced  ;  first,  that  the  presence  of  the  fungus  has  an  injurious 
action  extending  beyond  the  parts  in  which  it  is  growing,  a 
supposition  which  may  be  said  to  have  but  very  little  support ; 
and  second,  that  the  yellow  color  is  due  to  a  natural  weakening 
or  maturing  of  the  plant,  this  in  turn  being  brought  about  by 
untoward  circumstances,  or  by  age.  This  point  will  be  touched 
upon  more  fully  under  the  causes  of  the  early  blight. 

In  the  illustration,  the  edges  of  the  leaflets  are  shown  as  having 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


257 


curled  to  a  very  marked  degree.  Such  curling  is  not  necessarily 
an  indication  of  early  blight,  since  whenever  the  leaf  tissue  dies, 
expecially  at  the  outer  extremities  of  the  leaflets,  the  tendency 
seems  to  be  for  the  leaf  to  roll  upon  itself  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
Yet  this  character  possesses  a  certain  significance.  In  order  that 
a  leaflet  should  assume  the  position  of  those  here  represented,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  death  of  the  tissue  shall  occur  more 
or  less  slowly,  and  that  the  change  shall  take  place  from  the 
outer  portions  toward  the  center.  As  already  stated,  such  condi- 
tions  may  or  may  not  appear  during  an  invasion  of  the  late  blight, 
and  for  this  reason  the  curling  of  leaflets  affected  by  early  blight 
is  of  considerable  value  in  identifying  the  present  disease. 

In  addition  to  the  characters  above  mentioned,  there  are  sev¬ 
eral  other  factors  which  appear  to  be  clearly  connected  with  the 
early  blight  of  potatoes.  As  the  popular  name  of  the  disease 
implies,  its  appearance  may  be  expected  earlier  in  the  year  than 
the  late  blight ;  but  from  this  it  does  not  follow  that  later  attacks 
may  not  take  place  as  well.  The  growth  of  the  fungus  does  not 
seem  to  depend  so  much  upon  the  season,  as  it  does  upon  the  con¬ 
dition  of  the  plants  exposed  to  infection.  The  writer  has  occa¬ 
sionally  seen  potatoes  of  the  same  variety  growing  side  by  side, 
but  which  were  planted  at  different  times,  that  were  unequally 
affected  by  disease.  The  earlier  plantings  invariably  showed 
much  more  injury  than  the  later  ones.  In  some  cases  the  differ¬ 
ence  was  so  marked  that  it  would  scarcely  be  exaggerating  to  say 
that  the  younger  plants  were  entirely  free  from  disease,  while 
the  older  plants,  or  those  first  set  out,  had  lost  about  50  per  cent 
of  their  foliage  area.  Other  modifying  conditions  were  sought, 
but  no  other  conclusions  could  be  drawn  than  that  in  these  cases 
at  least,  the  entrance  of  the  fungus  depended  upon  the  plants 
having  reached  a  certain  age. 

A  similar  circumstance  has  frequently  been  noted  in  various 
parts  of  the  state,  with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  plants 
growing  side  by  side  were  not  of  the  same  varieties.  The  effect  was 
especially  marked  when  late  and  early  varieties  were  grown  in 
the  same  field.  The  earlier  the  potato  the  sooner  did  it  show  the 
effects  of  disease,  the  later  varieties  remaining  free  for  a  long 
time  ;  or  in  case  of  late  plantings,  the  foliage  may  have  escaped 


258 


Bulletin  113. 


the  trouble  to  a  marked  extent.  A  large  number  of  fields  have 
been  examined  with  these  points  in  mind,  and  such  observations 
have  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  young,  vigorously  growing 
plants  are  practically  free  from  the  disease,  while  those  which 
have  almost  completed  their  growth  of  foliage,  and  are  rapidly 
forming  tubers,  are  much  more  subject  to  attack. 

The  time  of  the  appearance  of  early  blight  may  therefore  de¬ 
pend  upon  questions  of  plant  physiology  fully  as  much  as  upon 
the  season,  or  even  more  so.  Since  full)7  developed  plants,  re¬ 
gardless  of  variety,  are  more  subject  to  disease  than  the  younger 
and  more  vigorously  growing  ones,  it  would  seem  reasonable  to 
conclude  that  conditions  which  would  cause  the  plants  to  ripen 
prematurely,  or  that  will  check  the  normal  growth,  will  at  the 
same  time  favor  the  appearance  of  the  early  blight.  Facts  tend 
to  support  this  view  of  the  case. 

It  has  been  my  observation  that  plants  grown  upon  dry  soils, 
those  which  are  naturally  warm  and  “  quick,”  are  more  subject  to 
the  disease  than  those  grown  in  moister  places  in  the  same 
field.  That  is,  the  early  blight  appeared  first  upon  the  high 
and  dry  knolls,  and  it  is  here  also  that  the  tubers  mature  the  ear¬ 
liest.  Seasons  of  protracted  drought,  therefore,  might  be  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  a  similar  effect,  and  the  testimony  of  all  observers 
bears  out  the  supposition.  It  is  in  dry  weather  that  the  early 
blight  progresses  most  rapidly,  the  late  blight  requiring  a  moist 
atmosphere  for  its  best  development.  The  falling  of  rain  upon  a 
field  in  which  the  tops  are  gradually  yielding  to  the  invasion  of 
early  blight  has  a  tendency  to  freshen  the  plants  and  apparently 
to  give  them  a  new  lease  of  life.  Water  seems  to  be  the  one 
thing  most  needed.  Upon  lower  land  the  conditions  are  different, 
and  as  a  rule  such  lands  suffer  less  from  drought,  and  the  potato 
crops  less  from  the  early  blight. 

A  curious  exception  to  the  above  may  here  be  noted.  I  have 
many  times  seen  potatoes  growing  under  trees  in  dry  fields 
where  all  the  potato  plants  were  suffering  severely  from  the  early 
blight  except  those  protected  by  the  foliage  of  the  trees.  As  a  rule 
the  thicker  the  foliage  upon  the  tree,  and  the  nearer  the  branches 
came  to  the  ground,  the  less  was  the  injury  from  blight  to  the  po¬ 
tatoes  below.  This  may  be  explained  by  supposing  that  the- 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


259 


spores  of  the  fungus  (assuming  it  to  be  the  sole  exciting  cause  of 
the  trouble)  are  unable  to  reach  the  plants,  a  scarcely  warrantable 
belief;  or,  that  the  spores  which  do  succeed  in  reaching  the  potato 
foliage  are  unable  to  germinate  on  account  of  lack  of  moisture. 
There  are  several  arguments  forming  the  second  supposition,  for 
with  the  exception  of  the  more  or  less  complete  absence  of  direct 
sunlight  and  rainfall, the  plants  growing  under  the  trees  are  in  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  condition  as  those  growing  within  the  area  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  feeding  roots  of  the  tree.  They  have  about  the  same 
amounts  of  soil  moisture  and  of  heat,  and  they  also  suffer  to  nearly 
the  same  extent  from  injury  by  insects.  But  they  escape  the 
moisture  of  light  showers,  and  they  are  also  free  from  dew.  It 
appears  probable,  therefore,  that  the  secret  of  their  immunity  from 
disease  lies  in  this  fact. 

Although  the  character  of  the  season  exerts  a  great  influence 
upon  the  prevalence  of  early  blight,  it  is  not  the  only  great  factor 
which  has  the  power  of  seriously  reducing  the  vitality  of  potato 
plants.  A  second  agent  is  a  small  organism  which  often  appears 
in  countless  numbers.  It  is  generally  known  as  the  flea-beetle,  on 
account  of  its  quick  movements  when  disturbed.  The  injury 
done  to  the  foliage  by  these  little  beetles  is  greater  than  was 
formerly  supposed.  They  feed  upon  the  tissues  of  the  leaves, 
taking  out  small  amounts  at  different  points.  Very  frequently 
sufficient  material  is  removed  to  cause  the  formation  of  small  holes 
which  extend  through  the  leaf.  The  diameters  of  these  holes  are 
scarcely  larger  than  that  of  a  pin,  yet  a  leaf  is  often  riddled  to  such 
an  extent  that  its  vitality  is  seriously  affected.  In  the  plate  the  leaf 
affected  with  early  blight  shows  the  results  of  the  work  of  these 
insects,  yet  only  the  more  serious  part  of  the  injury  could  be 
represented.  If  a  fresh  leaf  is  closely  examined  it  will  be  found 
that  there  are  many  places  in  which  the  beetles  have  begun  to 
feed,  yet  when  the  epidermis  of  the  leaf  has  been  penetrated,  and 
only  a  few  of  the  cells  underneath  have  been  destroyed,  the  insect 
changed  its  base  of  operations,  leaving  scarcely  a  trace  to  bear 
witness  of  its  presence.  It  is  true  that  often  when  a  leaf  has 
been  partially  pierced,  the  color  of  the  spot  becomes  much  lighter, 
but  the  intensity  of  the  color  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
amount  of  injury  done,  and  in  certain  cases  the  change  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished. 


26o 


Bulletin  113. 


The  results  of  such  repeated  attacks  of  the  flea -beetle  cannot 
be  otherwise  than  disastrous  to  potato  foliage,  and  I  have  heard 
several  growers  maintain  that  the  work  of  the  flea-beetle  is  more 
to  be  dreaded  than  that  of  any  other  organism  which  injures  the 
plants.  In  localities  where  these  beetles  are  numerous,  such 
statements  do  not  exaggerate  the  matter,  for  the  vigor  of  the 
entire  plant  is  frequently  much  reduced  by  these  insects. 

From  what  has  already  been  said  regarding  the  physiological 
effect  of  other  injurious  influences,  it  would  seem  very  probable 
that  the  work  of  the  flea-beetle  may  also  be  considered  as  being  a 
means  of  reducing  potato  plants  to  a  condition  which  renders  the 
development  of  the  early  blight  fungus  possible.  This  supposi¬ 
tion  is  supported  by  facts.  If  a  potato  leaf  is  examined  when  the 
first  traces  of  early  blight  appear,  it  will  probably  be  found  that 
the  first  browning  of  the  tissue  occurs  about  the  edges  of  holes 
made  by  flea-beetles,  or  in  places  in  which  the  tissues  have  been 
but  partially  injured.  This  is  perhaps  not  always  the  case,  but  it 
has  proved  to  be  so  in  the  vast  majority  of  the  leaves  which  I 
have  examined.  A  reddish-brown  zone  of  varying  width  is 
formed  about  a  central  point  (see  plate)  and  this  gradually 
enlarges  until  other  similar  discolorations  are  met,  and  the  gradual 
uniting  of  several  of  these  originally  distinct  areas,  causes  the 
more  or  less  continuous  destruction  of  the  tissue  at  the  edges  of 
the  leaflets.  When  the  discolorations  start  nearer  the  center  of 
the  leaf,  they  generally  remain  isolated  for  a  longer  period. 

The  later  stage  5  of  the  disease  are  well  known  to  potato  growers. 
The  entire  leaves  gradually  assume  the  brown  and  shrivelled  ap¬ 
pearance,  and  the  stems  in  turn  become  yellow,  dry,  and  brown, 
so  that  nothing  remains  of  a  formerly  green  and  flourishing  plant 
except  a  few  withered  remnants  of  foliage,  and  a  number  of  small, 
partially  developed  tubers.  These  do  not  rot,  but  owing  to  the 
death  of  the  tops  they  remain  small  from  want  of  nourishment. 

It  follows  from  the  preceding  remarks  on  the  early  blight,  that 
the  fungus  which  is  commonly  held  responsible  for  the  injury  is 
not  a  true  parasite  ;  that  is.  it  will  not  attack  healthy  tissue,  but 
only  succeeds  in  obtaining  a  foothold  after  the  potato  foliage  has 
become  weakened  by  age,  by  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  or 
by  mechanical  injuries,  chief  among  which  is  probably  the  flea- 


o  o 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


261 


beetle.  This  places  the  most  effective  lines  of  treatment  upon  a 
different  basis  from  that  generally  followed  with  other  fungous 
diseases  ;  instead  of  preventing  the  entrance  of  the  organism  by 
means  of  protective  substances,  the  constitution  of  the  plant  it¬ 
self  is  to  be  strengthened,  and  the  removal  of  as  many  injurious 
influences  as  possible  is  desired. 

There  appears  to  exist  another  trouble  which  is  generally  con¬ 
founded  with  the  early  blight ;  in  fact  it  is  very  difficult  to  distin¬ 
guish  the  two  without  the  aid  of  laboratory  methods.  This 
disease,  which  is  entirely  of  a  physiological  nature,  has  been 
thoroughly  discussed  by  Sturgis.*  It  has  been  found  only  to  a 
limited  extent  in  New  York,  for  almost  invariably  cultures  made 
from  affected  leaves  freely  developed  the  early  blight  fungus. 
According  to  Sturgis  the  same  conditions  which  produce  the  early 
blight  also  bring  about  the  death  of  certain  parts  of  the  leaf  tissue, 
in  a  manner  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  macrosporium.  He 
says  :  “Both  classes  of  injury  appeared  in  connection  with  the 
marks  of  the  flea  beetle,  both  were  exhibited  as  brown  spots  and 
blotches  marked  with  concentric  rings  ;  but  in  specimens  charac¬ 
terized  by  the  presence  of  the  fungus,  the  spots  were  more  sharply 
defined  and  darker  in  color.  This  difference  was  sufficiently 
marked  to  enable  a  close  observer  to  distinguish  either  one  in  the 
field  after  a  little  practice,  but  a  comparison  between  the  two  pro¬ 
duced  the  impression  that  both  classes  of  injury  might  have  been 
caused  by  the  same  agency,  and  that  the  slight  difference  in 
appearance  might  be  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  one  case  a  fungus 
had  occupied  the  injured  tissue,  and  in  the  other  had  not  done  so.” 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  causes  which  lead  to  the  appearance 
of  these  two  diseases  are  the  same,  and  the  same  lines  of  treatment 
are  consequently  indicated. 

3.  Potato  scab  ( Oospora  scabies ,  Thaxter). — This  disease  is 
one  which  is  well  known  to  potato  growers.  Figure  99 
represents  affected  tubers.  The  uneven,  warty  growths  upon 
the  surface  of  the  potatoes  are  composed  of  material  produced 
by  the  tubers  in  consequence  of  the  irritation  of  parasitic  organ¬ 
isms  which  live  upon  the  substance  of  the  potatoes.  Under  favor- 


Ann.  Rept.  Conn.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  1894,  127-134. 


262 


Bulletin  113. 


able  circumstances  these  injuries  are  very  extensive,  for  the  entire 
surface  of  the  tuber  may  be  affected,  and  although  the  affected 
parts  do  not  always  penetrate  very  deeply,  the  blemished  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  tubers  and  the  actual  loss  of  material  may  become  very 
serious. 

The  causes  of  potato  scab  have  been  discovered  only  within 
recent  years.  The  disease  was  carefully  studied  in  1889-90  by 
H.  L.  Bolley,  who  was  then  assistant  botanist  of  the  Indiana 
Experiment  Station.  The  results  of  his  work  appeared  in 
Agricultural  Science,  1890,  Nos.  9  and  10.*  He  ascribed  the 


99. — Scab  on  potatoes. 

cause  of  the  trouble  to  a  certain  bacterium  which  had  the  power 
of  injuring  tubers  while  they  were  in  active  growth,  but  later 
caused  little  injury.  The  injuries  produced  by  the  microbe  are 
generally  rather  shallow,  not  extending  deeply  into  the  tis¬ 
sues  of  the  tubers. 

Later  in  the  year  1890  Dr.  R.  Thaxter  of  the  Connecticut 
Experiment  Station  read  a  paper  upon  potato  scab  in  which 
it  was  stated  that  potato  scab  is  due  to  the  work  of  a  fungus. f 

*See  also  N.  Dak.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  1891,  Dec.  Bull.  4,  which  contains  a 
record  of  Bolley’s  work  and  a  full  bibliography  of  the  subject. 

|The  paper  was  read  Nov.  12,  1890,  at  Champaign,  Ill.,  before  a  meeting 
of  the  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  See 
also  a  full  account  in  the  Ann.  Rept.  Conn.  Agric.  Exp.  Station.  1890,  pp. 
80-95. 


1 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


263 


More  recent  investigations  have  verified  the  work  of  Thaxter, 
and  it  is  now  the  generally  accepted  belief  that  practically  all  the 
injury  which  is  commonly  known  as  scab  is  due  to  a  fungus 
( Oospora  scabies ,  Thax).  This  frequently  enters  deeply  into  the 
potato,  especially  if  the  infection  occurs  early  in  the  season  when 
the  tubers  are  small.  When  older  tubers  become  affected,  the 
injury  generally  assumes  the  form  of  a  corky  crust  upon  the  sur¬ 
face. 

The  conditions  which  favor  the  growth  of  the  potato  scab  fun¬ 
gus  are  dampness  and  an  alkaline  condition  of  the  soil.  It  is  a 
common  experience  that  scab  is  more  prevalent  in  soils  rich  in 
organic  matter,  and  abundance  of  air  and  moisture  allow  a  more 
vigorous  growth  of  the  parasite  to  take  place. 

The  fact  that  an  alkaline  soil  causes  more  severe  attacks  of 
potato  scab  has  an  important  practical  bearing.  A  soil  may  be 
made  alkaline  in  a  number  of  ways,  especially  by  the  addition  of 
certain  fertilizers.  Lime  has  a  very  strong  tendency  in  this 
direction,  and  stable  manure  exerts  a  similar  influence.  This  fact 
has  undoubtedly  given  rise  to  the  popular  belief  that  stable 
manure  will  increase  the  amount  of  scab  upon  potatoes.  The 
appearance  of  the  fungus  may  be  favored  merely  by  the  alkaline 
condition  of  the  soil,  or  it  may  actually  be  applied  to  soil  which 
is  free  from  the  disease,  and  thus  an  entire  field  be  infected  by  the 
fertilizer.  If  both  the  soil  and  the  manure  are  free  from  disease, 
no  scab  will  appear,  unless  it  exists  upon  the  tubers  used  for  seed. 
All  fertilizers  which  have  a  tendency  to  produce  an  acid  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  soil  may  check  the  growth  of  the  fungus,  and  by  the 
proper  selection  of  fertilizing  material  sometimes  a  very  marked 
effect  may  be  produced  upon  the  crop.* 

During  1894,  a  third  cause  for  the  injury  generally  known  as 
scab  was  advanced  by  A.  D.  Hopkins,  entomologist  of  the  West 
Virginia  Experiment  Station.  The  first  account  of  his  investigation 
of  this  diseasewas  read  before  the  West  Virginia  State  Horticultur¬ 
al  Society  April  6.f  In  this  paper  it  was  said  that  the  larvae  of  one 

*An  excellent  account  of  the  effect  of  various  chemicals  and  manures 
upon  the  amount  of  scab  upon  potato  tubers  has  been  published  by  Wheeler 
and  Tucker  in  Bull.  23,  of  the  R .  I.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  Oct.  1895. 

fSee  Special  Bull.  2.  IV.  Va.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  pp.  97-iri.  Also,  Pro¬ 
ceedings  of  the  Washington  Entomological  Society,  May  3,  1894  ;  Insect 
Life ,  vii.  p.  147. 


264 


Bulletin  113. 


or  two  species  of  insects  ( Epidapus  scabies ,  Hopkins,  and  Sciara 
sp.)  disfigure  potatoes  in  a  manner  very  similar  to  that  of  the  scab 
fungus.  In  the  more  northern  states,  however,  these  insects  do 
not  appear  to  be  so  troublesome,  and  the  methods  of  treatment 
recommended  for  the  destruction  of  the  fungus  are  generally  very 
effective  in  controlling  the  disease. 


B.  TREATMENT  OF  FUNGOUS  DISEASES. 

1.  Potato  Rot  or  Eate  Blight. — Bordeaux  mixture  is  the 
sovereign  remedy  for  the  rot  or  late  blight.  It  was  first  success¬ 
fully  used  by  the  French  in  1886  and  since  that  time  innumerable 
experiments  have  been  made  with  this  fungicide  in  checking  the 
trouble.  Success  has  followed  whenever  the  applications  have 
been  properly  made,  and  it  is  no  longer  a  question  whether  the 
mixture  will  prevent  the  blight ;  it  is  now  entirely  a  matter  of 
judgment  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  grower.  If  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  properly  made*,  and  thoroughly  applied  at  the  right 
time,  scarcely  a  decayed  tuber  should  appear  in  the  field.  It  is  im¬ 
possible  to  state  when  the  first  applications  should  be  made,  nor  how 
many  times  the  plants  should  be  treated,  for  the  conditions  vary 
so  much  in  different  localities.  As  a  rule  it  is  unnecessary  to  be¬ 
gin  spraying  before  the  middle  of  July,  and  the  first  of  August 
will  prove  none  too  late  in  the  majority  of  cases.  The  character 
of  the  season,  and  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  in  former  years 
must  serve  as  guides  as  to  the  best  time  to  begin  spraying.  In 
certain  localities  the  late  blight  appears  with  considerable  regular¬ 
ity,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  well  to  spray  about  ten  days  before  the 
period  in  which  the  trouble  is  generally  first  noticed. 

Eater  applications  may  be  made  at  intervals  of  one  to  three 
weeks,  depending  upon  the  weather.  Even  in  years  favorable  to 
blight,  three  applications  should  be  sufficient  to  protect  the  plants 

*  A  good  mixture  for  use  upon  potatoes  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  6 
pounds  copper  sulphate  in  about  12  gallons  of  water  ;  slake  4  pounds  quick¬ 
lime  and  add  to  the  copper  sulphate  solution.  Dilute  to  40  gallons.  If  the 
ferocyanide  of  potassium  test  is  employed,  put  in  about  one-fourth  more  lime 
than  the  test  solution  shows  to  be  necessary. 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


265 


almost  perfectly.  The  foliage  should  be  thoroughly  covered  from 
above,  and  if  the  spray  may  be  conveniently  applied  from  below 
also,  so  much  the  better.  A  fine  and  abundant  spray  will  be 
found  most  satisfactory  (see  page  277  for  report  upon  spraying 
machinery). 

2.  Early  Blight. — The  successful  treatment  of  the  early 
blight  is  by  no  means  an  easy  matter,  as  appeared  in  the  discus¬ 
sion  of  its  probable  causes.  It  was  shown  that  the  early  blight 
does  not  appear  until  the  period  of  active  growth  is  passed,  or 
until  the  plants  have  become  weakened  by  some  mechanical 
agency. 

The  first  step  towards  checking  the  trouble,  therefore,  is  to 
maintain  the  plants  in  as  vigorous  condition  as  possible.  Proper 
fertilization,  abundant  cultivation,  and  close  attention  to 
the  welfare  of  the  plants  become  matters  of  prime  importance. 
The  selection  of  suitable  land  in  favorable  localities,  and  its 
thorough  preparation  will  also  prove  of  material  benefit.  This 
disease  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  theory  that  disease  in  plants 
is  not  the  prime  cause  of  injury,  but  rather  only  an  indication  or 
symptom  of  weakness  which  existed  before  the  injurious  organ¬ 
ism  could  gain  an  entrance,  and  which  in  fact  must  exist  before 
such  an  entrance  can  be  effected.  The  idea,  however,  does  not 
apply  so  aptly  to  all  cases  of  the  disease. 

The  mechanical  injuries  to  potato  vines  are  mostly  brought 

/• 

about  by  insects,  and  chief  among  these  is  the  flea-beetle.  The 
methods  of  treating  this  pest  will  be  found  on  page  275. 

The  bulk  of  the  injury  done  by  the  early  blight  has  been 
ascribed  to  a  fungus  ( Macrosporium  Solani )  which  unduly  hastens 
the  destruction  of  plants  that  are  already  on  the  down-hill  side  of 
life.  The  fungus  is  widespread  and  is  undoubtedly  responsible 
for  much  of  the  injury  done  to  potato  crops. 

During  the  summer  of  1895  the  writer  endeavored  to  control 
the  early  blight  by  means  of  thorough  application  of  the  Bordeaux 
mixture.  Four  plots  were  selected  for  the  work,  I  and  II  being 
upon  the  University  farm  where  Professor  Roberts  kindly  allowed 
me  the  use  of  certain  portions  of  the  potato  field,  and  materially 
assisted  in  carrying  on  the  work  ;  plots  III  and  IV  were  upon 
the  farm  of  H.  R.  McNair,  Dansville,  N.  Y.  By  distributing  the 


266 


Bulletin  113. 


plots  in  this  manner  it  was  hoped  that  more  accurate  and  con¬ 
vincing  results  might  be  obtained. 

Plot  I. — The  land  selected  for  the  experiment  was  divided  into 
four  sections,  each  covering  an  area  of  a  little  more  than  three 
square  rods.  Burbank  potatoes  were  planted  May  16  in  rows  3^ 
feet  apart,  the  pieces  being  put  in  at  intervals  of  14  inches.  At 
this  rate  it  was  estimated  that  about  10  bushels  of  seed  would  be 
used  per  acre. 

Notes  taken  July  5  show  that  the  plants  were  growing  vigor¬ 
ously,  and  were  scarcely  troubled  by  flea-beetle.  The  first  appli¬ 
cation  was  made  at  this  time,  the  four  sections  receiving  the  fol¬ 
lowing  treatments  :  1.  Bordeaux  mixture  made  May  18,  it  having 
been  allowed  to  stand  since  that  time  and  receiving  only  an  occa¬ 
sional  stirring  ;  2.  Bordeaux  mixture  freshly  prepared;*  3.  no 
treatment  ;  4.  copper  chloride  mixture.!  The  materials  were  ap¬ 
plied  with  a  knapsack  pump  and  Vermorel  nozzle.  It  was  found 
that  the  application  could  be  made  very  satisfactorily  in  this  man¬ 
ner  with  the  exception  of  section  1,  which  received  the  old  Bor¬ 
deaux  mixture.  The  sediment  settled  so  fast  that  it  was  mostly 
applied  before  one-half  of  the  required  amount  of  liquid  had  been 
used,  in  spite  of  repeated  shaking  of  the  tank  by  the  operator. 
This  necessitated  a  second  treatment  immediately  after  the  first, 
the  work  being  started  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  section. 

On  July  23  the  above  treatments  were  repeated  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  that  section  1  received  but  one  application,  the  distribution 
being  still  more  uneven  than  the  first  time.  There  was  some  indi¬ 
cation  of  early  blight,  yet  not  enough  to  distinguish  whether  the 
treatments  had  been  of  value. 

August  28,  however,  showed  a  marked  difference  in  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  sections.  The  third,  which  was  untreated,  had  fully 
50  per  cent  of  its  leaves  badly  affected  ;  the  first  was  as  bad  as 


*The  Bordeaux  mixture  was  made  according  to  the  “  Normal  ”  formula  ; 
copper  sulphate,  6  pounds ;  quicklime,  4  pounds ;  water,  45  gallons.  This 
mixture  contains  copper  sulphate  at  the  rate  of  1.6  per  cent  of  the  weight  of 
water  used. 

f  This  mixture  was  made  by  dissolving  3  ounces  copper  chloride  in  24  gal¬ 
lons  of  water,  and  then  to  this  solution  was  added  6  ounces  of  slaked  quick¬ 
lime. 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


267 


the  check  where  little  of  the  sediment  had  been  applied,  but 
where  the  spraying  had  commenced,  and  consequently  upon  that 
part  which  received  most  of  the  solid  contents  of  the  knapsack 
pump,  the  foliage  was  much  better,  scarcely  10  per  cent  of  the 
leaves  showing  serious  injury.  Section  2  also  appeared  very 
thrifty  since  the  foliage  averaged  fully  as  well  as  the  best  parts  of 
section  1.  Section  4,  the  one  which  was  treated  with  the  copper 
chloride  mixture,  appeared  to  have  fully  25  per  cent  of  its  leaves 
seriously  attacked.  Section  2  was  again  sprayed  with  fresh  Bor¬ 
deaux  mixture,  the  other  sections  remaining  untreated. 

Other  observations  were  made  September  12.  At  this  time  the 
relative  amounts  of  early  blight  appeared  to  be  about  the  same  as 
two  weeks  previous.  The  part  of  section  1  which  had  received 
most  of  the  sediment  was  in  as  thrifty  condition  as  section  2  which 
had  received  the  extra  treatment.  From  this  it  would  seem  that 
the  last  application  made  to  section  2  was  of  minor  importance. 
The  vines  at  that  time  had  practically  completed  their  growth  so 
that  there  was  little  new  foliage  exposed  to  the  disease.  The 
rainfall  had  also  been  slight,  and  the  Bordeaux  mixture  could 
still  be  plainly  seen  upon  all  sections  treated  with  it. 

The  potatoes  were  dug  September  26.  Since  the  sections  varied 
somewhat  in  size,  the  yield  of  each  has  been  estimated  upon  the 
proportionate  yield  per  acre,  this  furnishing  a  more  convenient 
basis  for  comparison.  The  result  was  as  follows  : 

Section  1,  Old  Bordeaux  mixture,  332  bushels  per  acre. 

“  2,  Fresh  Bordeaux  mixture,  350  bushels  per  acre. 

“  3,  No  treatment,  284  bushels  per  acre. 

“  4,  Copper  chloride  mixture,  297  bushels  per  acre. 

The  apparent  gains  from  the  treatments  of  the  sections  were 
accordingly,  1-48  bushels  ;  2-66  bushels  ;  4-13  bushels.  The  ad¬ 
vantage  derived  from  the  copper  chloride  mixture  is  so  slight  that 
it  promises  little  practical  value.  The  results  obtained  with  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  however,  are  more  encouraging,  and  seem  to 
indicate  that  it  may  be  possible  to  spray  for  the  early  blight,  al¬ 
though  the  margin  may  at  times  be  close. 

To  what  extent  these  gains  were  due  to  the  prevention  of 
injury  to  the  flea-beetle  it  is  difficult  to  say.  The  vines  which 
were  most  thoroughly  sprayed  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  did  not 


268 


Bulletin  113. 


escape  the  attacks  of  this  insect,  as  could  be  seen  by  the  many  pits 
which  remained  as  witnesses  of  its  presence.  Untreated  plants 
suffered  more  severely,  as  they  did  also  from  the  early  blight. 
The  probable  action  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  thus  appears  to  be 
two-fold.  In  the  first  place  it  prevents  to  a  very  considerable  ex¬ 
tent  injury  from  the  flea-beetle  ;  in  the  second  place  it  prevents 
the  entrance  of  the  macrosporium  into  tissues  which  have  suffered 
from  the  work  of  the  insect,  and  also  protects  those  which  are 
made  susceptible  to  the  disease  in  other  ways.  It  is  certain  that 
the  fungus  was  very  abundant  in  the  foliage  of  untreated  plants, 
and  it  seemed  probable  that  the  value  of  the  mixture  was  just  as 
great  in  preventing  injury  from  this  source,  as  it  was  in  protecting 
the  leaves  from  the  attacks  of  insects. 

Plot  II.  This  plot  was  also  upon  the  University  farm. 
It  contained  just  one- third  of  an  acre,  and  was  planted  to  several 
varieties  of  potatoes,  some  of  which  were  considerably  earlier  than 
others.  The  field  was  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  the 
line  of  division  running  across  the  rows  so  that  each  part  should 
contain  the  same  proportionate  amount  of  each  variety.  One  por¬ 
tion  was  sprayed  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  the  other  part  re¬ 
maining  untreated.  Applications  were  made  July  13  and  August 
12,  fresh  Bordeaux  mixture  being  used  each  time. 

At  the  time  of  the  second  spraying,  a  remarkable  difference 
could  be  seen  between  the  two  parts.  The  untreated  portion 
showed  fully  50  per  cent  of  badly  blighted  foliage,  while  that  of 
the  sprayed  part  scarcely  exceeded  5  per  cent.  This  difference 
was  especially  marked  in  case  of  the  earlier  varieties,  and  it  could 
be  distinguished  a  considerable  distance  from  the  field.  The  un¬ 
treated  vines  perished  earlier  in  the  season,  and  when  scarcely  a 
vestige  of  green  could  be  found  in  the  check  section,  the  other 
portion  was  still  fairly  green,  at  least  the  tops  appeared  to  possess 
a  decided  ability  to  nourish  the  tubers  which  were  depending  upon 
them  for  support.  At  this  time  the  very  late  varieties,  such  as 
the  Orphan,  were  all  of  a  deep  green  color,  apparently  unaffected 
either  by  flea-beetles  or  by  blight.  Their  turn  came  later  in  the 
fall,  although  the  difference  was  never  so  clearly  defined  as  in  the 
case  of  the  earlier  varieties. 


Diseases  of  the  Potato.  269 

These  potatoes  were  dug  during  the  last  days  of  September,  and 
yielded  at  the  following  rate  : 

Section  1.  Fresh  Bordeaux  mixture,  31 1  bushels  per  acre. 

“  2.  No  treatment,  272  “  “ 

This  represents  a  gain  of  49  bushels  per  acre,  a  result  appar¬ 
ently  due  more  to  the  prevention  of  the  macrosporiun  than  to  the 
destruction  of  the  flea-beetle,  for  the  latter  was  not  conspicuous 
by  its  absence.  The  fungus  was  very  prevalent,  and  the  vines 
appeared  to  succumb  rapidly  when  it  had  once  gained  a  foothold. 

Plot  III.  The  figures  relating  to  the  experiments  in  plots  III 
and  IV  mere  obtained  from  Mr.  McNair,  who  very  kindly  looked 
after  the  work  in  such  a  thorough  manner  that  the  results  are 
here  published  in  full.  The  McNair  farm  is  situated  near  the  head 
of  the  famous  Genesee  Valley,  upon  the  bottom  lands.  The  potato 
rot  is  an  occasional  visitor,  but  during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1895 
practically  no  rot  was  discovered,  as  was  also  the  case  upon  the 
University  farm,  so  that  the  beneficial  results  of  all  applications 
must  be  due  to  the  prevention  of  other  troubles,  these  being  com¬ 
monly  summed  up  in  the  term  early  blight. 

Mr.  McNair  grew  a  number  of  acres  of  White  Star  potatoes, 
and  in  his  field  the  plots  and  sections  were  laid  out  so  that  four 
rows  extended  from  one  end  of  the  plantation  to  the  other.  Only 
the  two  central  rows  were  considered  when  the  yields  were  meas¬ 
ured.  The  potatoes  were  planted  May  28,  and  were  sprayed  with 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  July  19  and  August  5.  This  mixture  was 
made  of  different  strengths. 

a.  The  most  concentrated  form  contained  6  pounds  copper 
sulphate,  4  pounds  quick  lime,  and  40  gallons  of  water. 

b.  This  mixture  contained  5  pounds  copper  sulphate,  with 
lime  in  the  above  proportions,  in  40  gallons  of  water. 

c.  The  amount  of  copper  sulphate  was  reduced  to  4.3  pounds 
in  40  gallons,  with  lime  in  proportion. 

d.  Only  3.5  pounds  copper  sulphate  were  used  to  40  gallons, 
the  amount  of  lime  being  likewise  reduced. 

Five  sections  were  selected,  each  having  four  rows  and  contain¬ 
ing  24  square  rods.  One  section  remained  untreated,  but  the  re¬ 
mainder  were  sprayed  with  the  different  mixtures.  The  work 
was  done  by  an  efficient  power  sprayer  which  Mr.  McNair  had 


270 


Bulletin  113. 


made.  Vermorel  nozzels  were  used,  and  very  satisfactory  work 
was  done,  although  the  amount  of  liquid  applied  might  perhaps 
have  been  increased  to  advantage. 

When  the  potatoes  were  dug  in  the  fall  the  following  yields 
were  obtained,  the  figures  again  showing  the  proportionate 
amounts  per  acre: 

Section  1,  Untreated,  209  bushels. 

“  2,  Mixture  a ,  227  ‘ ‘ 

“  3.  “  b,  234 

“  4,  “  c,  221  “ 

5,  “  d,  191 

These  figures  are  not  altogether  encouraging  for  the  sprayer. 
Sections  2,  3,  and  4  on  the  average  yielded  an  increase  of  only 
18.3  bushels  per  acre,  while  section  5  produced  18  bushels  less 
than  the  untreated  one.  These  figures  appear  to  represent  the 
actual  gains,  yet  no  apparent  reason  exists  for  the  decreased  yield 
of  section  5.  Probably  local  conditions  of  the  soil  exerted  this 
influence. 

Plot  IV.  This  plot  was  situated  in  another  part  of  the  field. 
Only  two  sections  were  made,  these  being  still  larger  than  in  the 
preceding  experiment.  The  most  concentrated  Bordeaux  mix¬ 
ture  above  mentioned  was  applied  to  one,  the  other  remaining 
untreated.  The  plants  were  sprayed  at  the  same  time  as  in  the 
preceding  case,  and  the  same  machinery  was  used.  When  the  crop 
was  harvested  it  was  found  that 

Section  1,  untreated,  yielded  252  bushels  per  acre 

“  2,  Bordeaux  mixture,  yielded  298  bushels  per  acre. 

In  this  plot,  the  gain  was  46  bushels  per  acre.  Apparently 
the  conditions  were  exactly  the  same,  and  as  this  result  corres¬ 
ponds  fairly  well  with  the  results  obtained  in  Ithaca  it  may  be 
stated  that  spraying  for  the  early  blight  is  of  advantage,  and  if  the 
applications  are  properly  made,  the  operation  should  be  profitable. 

In  summing  up  the  gains  obtained  by  spraying  with  fresh 
Bordeaux  mixture  for  the  early  blight,  omitting  section  5  in  plot 
III  in  which  an  actual  loss  occurred,  it  is  found  that  the  average 
increase  in  the  four  plots  is  44.8  bushels,  by  no  means  an  insigni¬ 
ficant  amount.  In  order  that  such  results  may  be  obtained,  it  is 
essential  that  very  thorough  work  shall  be  done,  and  that  the 
operation  shall  take  place  at  the  proper  time. 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


271 


Mr.  McNair  also  kindly  furnished  me  with  some  interesting  data 
regarding  the  value  of  having  plants  sufficiently  thrifty  to  with¬ 
stand  early  blight,  a  subject  already  discussed  upon  page  260.  He 
found  that  in  a  certain  portion  of  his  field  the  addition  of  10  loads 
of  barnyard  manure  per  acre  produced  an  increased  yield  of  19 
bushels.  When  there  were  also  added  100  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  100  pounds  of  Carolina  rock,  and  the  plants  were  in 
addition  well  cultivated  and  sprayed,  the  actual  increase  in  yield 
was  100  bushels  per  acre,  as  was  shown  by  an  adjoining  plot. 

The  early  blight,  therefore,  should  be  treated  by  growing  vigor¬ 
ous  plants,  and  by  protecting  the  foliage  against  the  work  of  in¬ 
sects  and  fungi  by  the  use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

The  early  blight  may  also  be  avoided  to  a  certain  extent  by 
planting  early  varieties,  as  these  frequently  mature  before  the 
blight  does  much  harm  ;  and  also  by  planting  late,  for  in  this  case 
the  plants  will  be  in  active  growth  during  the  season  when  the 
blight  is  most  prevalent,  and  it  has  already  been  shown  that  such 
plants  are  practically  free  from  the  disease.  During  the  fall,  when 
the  plants  are  maturing,  there  is  less  danger  of  attack. 

3.  Potato  Scab. — The  remedy  proposed  by  Bolley*  may  be 
considered  as  almost  a  specific  for  this  disease.  His  first  recom¬ 
mendation  was  to  soak  the  seed  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
for  one  and  one-half  hours.  The  solution  was  made  by  dissolving 
2  ounces  of  the  poison  in  15  gallons  of  water.  Potatoes  treated 
in  this  manner  are  practically  free  from  the  scab  fungus,  as  the 
latter  is  usually  destroyed,  unless  the  potatoes  used  for  seed  are 
very  badly  injured.  In  such  cases  it  appears  that  some  of  the 
germs  of  the  disease  may  escape  and  serve  as  sources  of  infection 
in  the  field.  In  order  to  overcome  this  defect,  the  use  of  stronger 
solutions  have  been  recommended,  or  the  immersion  of  the  tubers 
during  a  longer  time.  Bolley’s  latest  recommendation  is  to  dis¬ 
solve  10  ounces  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  60  gallons  of  water,  and 
the  general  tendency  among  experimenters  is  to  use  stronger 
solutions  than  the  ones  first  recommended.  The  period  of  im¬ 
mersion  also  varies  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  hours. 
Probably  the  period  of  treatment  may  vary  with  the  amount  of 
scab  upon  the  tubers,  and  with  the  depth  to  which  the  tissues  are 


*N.  Dak.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  4,  p.  14. 


272 


Bulletin  113. 


diseased.  The  germinating  power  of  potatoes  is  sometimes  im¬ 
paired  if  they  are  treated  with  the  strong  solutions  for  the  long 
periods  recommended.  It  is  advisable  therefore  to  get  as  clean 
seed  as  possible,  but  if  the  potatoes  are  scabby,  to  treat  them  with 
solutions  whose  strength  iucreases  with  severity  of  the  disease  on 
the  tuber,  at  the  same  time  lengthening  the  period  of  immersion. 

It  has  been  my  experience  that  it  is  fully  as  important  to  have 
clean  land  as  it  is  to  have  clean  seed.  The  fungus  causing  the 
trouble  appeared  upon  potatoes  which  were  grown  from  clean  seed 
upon  land  that  had  not  been  used  for  this  crop  during  five  years, 
although  two  crops  of  beets  had  been  grown  upon  it  during  Ihis 
period.  How  long  the  disease  may  persist  is  not  known,  but  it 
was  sufficiently  severe  during  the  comparatively  dry  season  of 
1895  to  obscure  the  results  of  several  experiments  designed  to  show 
the  value  of  various  treatments  of  Burbank  potatoes  for  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  scab  fungus.  The  soil  selected  is  a  moderately  moist 
gravel  loam. 

Another  portion  of  the  field  had  not  grown  potatoes  for  eighteen 
years,  and  the  land  proved  to  be  entirely  free  from  the  disease.  The 
portion  selected  for  the  experiments  is  a  comparatively  dry  gravel 
loam,  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  The  attempt  was  here  made 
to  lessen  the  disease  by  means  of  copper  and  brass  shavings,  these 
being  mixed  with  the  soil  in  the  drills.  No  beneficial  results  from 
the  treatment  were  observed,  however,  even  when  enormous 
quantities  of  the  shavings  were  used.  It  was  evident  that  too 
small  an  amount  of  the  metals  entered  in  solution  to  affect  the 
growth  of  the  scab  fungus,  although  the  spores  of  other  fungi  are 
unable  to  germinate  in  water  which  has  passed  through  a  copper 
pipe  only  a  few  feet  in  length. 

An  attempt  to  increase  the  amount  of  scab  was,  however,  entire¬ 
ly  successful.  A  small  handful  of  air-slaked  lime  was  scattered 
in  the  drills  where  the  pieces  of  potato  were  planted,  and  when 
these  potatoes  were  dug  it  was  found  that  the  number  of  scabby 
potatoes  was  more  than  twice  as  great  as  in  the  rows  which  receiv¬ 
ed  no  treatment  ;  the  individual  tubers  were  also  more  seriously 
affected.  Air-slaked  lime  therefore  appears  to  have  a  decidedly 
favorable  influence  upon  the  growth  of  the  fungus. 

An  alkaline  or  an  acid  condition  of  the  soil  becomes  a  serious 
matter  in  certain  potato  growing  regions.  This  question  has  been 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


273 

very  thoroughly  studied  at  the  Rhode  Island  experiment  station* 
and  several  of  the  conclusions  obtained  are  here  given. 

“  Wood  ashes  (which  like  air  slaked  lime  consists  largely  of 
calcium  carbonate)  pure  calcium  carbonate,  calcium  acetate,  and 
calcium  oxalate,  promote  the  scab  in  a  high  degree. 

“  Calcium  chloride  injured  the  potato  plants  but  entirely 
prevented  scab,  although  an  abundance  of  germs  was  probably 
introduced. 

“  Calcium  sulphate  (known  as  land  plaster  and  gypsum)  is  the 
only  form  of  lime  employed  which  has  not  injured  the  growth  of 
the  crops,  and  which  has  at  the  same  time  failed  to  promote  with 
certainty  the  development  of  the  scab. 

“  Upon  our  acid  soil,  which  has  been  partially  neutralized  by 
air-slaked  lime,  the  use  of  ammonia  sulphate  has,  under  other¬ 
wise  like  circumstances,  resulted  in  producing  tubers  less  scabby 
than  where  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen  in  form  of  sodium  nitrate 
was  used, 

“  Common  salt  has  reduced  the  percentage  of  scab. 

“  Sodium  carbonate  acts  in  the  same  way  as  calcium  carbonate, 
though  perhaps  not  in  the  same  degree,  and  promotes  decidedly 
the  development  of  disease. 

“  Barnyard  manure,  owing  to  its  alkalinity  or  the  production 
of  carbonate  from  it,  has  probably  in  and  of  itself  increased  the 
scab. 

“  Oxalic  acid  seems  to  have  a  tendency  ...  to  reduce  the 
percentage  of  scab. 

“  By  the  use  of  ammonium  sulphate  and  probably  muriate  and 
sulphate  of  potash,  Kainit  and  common  salt  in  connection  with 
dissolved  phosphate  rock,  dissolved  bone,  or  dissolved  bone  black, 
soils  which  now  tend  to  produce  scabby  tubers,  would  probably 
become  less  favorable  to  the  disease.  It  is  possible  that  a  rational 
system  of  rotation  of  crops  which  would  include  no  beets  or  other  root 
crops ,  and  perhaps  no  cabbages,  would  also  help  to  alleviate  the 
condition  in  such  soils.” 

-  t 

*Wheeler  and  Tucker.  Bull.  33,  pp.  58-79. 


PART  II.  INSECTS. 


i.  Potato  BEETLE.  (. Doryphora  decemlineata ,  Say). — This 
insect  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  During  the  past 
twenty-five  years  it  has  been  very  generally  destroyed  by  the  use 
of  Paris  green,  and  in  more  recent  years  also  by  London  purple. 
These  poisons  were  at  first  applied  in  dry  form,  being  mixed  with 
flour,  plaster,  air  slaked  lime,  and  similar  powders.  The  propor¬ 
tions  of  the  ingredients  varied  greatly,  one  part  of  the  poison  being 
added  to  from  one  to  fifty  parts  of  the  diluent.  The  mixture  was 
then  dusted  upon  the  plants  by  means  of  perforated  boxes,  or 
bags  made  of  coarse  material.  In  recent  years  very  effective 
machines  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  making  uniform 
applications  of  powders  with  great  rapidity,  and  these  have  largely 
supplanted  the  older  devices.  The  powder  is  driven  forcibly  from 
the  machines  by  means  of  an  air  blast;  when  applied  in  this  manner 
it  is  well  to  mix  one  part  of  poison  with  one  to  three  parts  of 
air-slaked  lime.  The  lime  makes  the  powder  visible  as  it  leaves 
the  machine,  and  it  also  prevents  injury  from  the  poison;  for 
these  reasons  it  is  probably  the  best  diluent  to  use.  One  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  these  arsenites  per  acre  is  sufficient  for  each  appli¬ 
cation. 

The  more  popular  method  of  applying  arsenites  at  present  is  to 
mix  them  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  gallons  of 
water.  An  equal  weight  of  quicklime  should  be  added  to  the 
mixtures,  first  slaking  the  lime  in  water.  This  prevents  the 
caustic  action  of  the  arsenites,  and  yet  does  not  interfere  with  the 
machinery.  When  poisons  are  applied  in  water  with  proper  ma¬ 
chinery,  rapid  applications  may  be  made  at  all  hours  of  the 
day,  and  with  but  little  regard  to  the  weather. 

Paris  purple*  is  another  form  of  arsenic  which  has  been  sold  dur¬ 
ing  a  number  of  years  for  the  destruction  of  potato  beetles.  It 
resembles  London  purple,  but  is  of  a  deeper  color  and  mixes  with 
much  greater  difficulty  with  water.  In  our  experiments  it  proved 

*Chemical  analysis  of  Paris  purple  showed  it  to  contain  34.1  per  cent  arsenic 
trioxide,  40  7  per  cent  of  this  being  soluble  in  water.  It  is  sold  by  Sykes  & 
Street,  85  Water  street,  New  York. 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


275 


effective  when  used  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  four  gallons  of 
water. 

Within  the  past  few  years  another  form  of  arsenic,  known  as 
English  purple  poison*,  has  been  offered  for  sale  in  this  country. 
The  results  of  various  trials  of  the  poison  upon  potato  foliage 
show  that  when  used  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  four  gallons  of 
water  it  is  effectual  in  destroying  the  insects.  But  it  also 
possesses  the  serious  objection  of  mixing  slowly  with  water. 

2.  Feea-beetles  — The  most  serious  insect  enemy  of  pota¬ 
toes  is  undoubtedly  the  flea-beetle.  The  insects  are  scarcely  a 
tenth  of  an  inch  in  length  ;  they  are  nearly  black  in  color,  and 
the  quickness  of  their  movements  has  caused  them  to  receive 
their  popular  name.  There  appear  to  be  several  broods  each 
season,  so  their  work  is  more  or  less  continuous  during  the  grow¬ 
ing  season. 

Many  remedies  have  been  suggested  for  the  destruction  of  this 
pest.  Among  them  may  be  included  the  following  :  Paris  green  ; 
London  purple  ;  decoction  of  tobacco ;  kerosene  emulsion  ;  air- 
slaked  lime;  land  plaster;  wood  ashes;  tobacco  powder;  Bor¬ 
deaux  mixture. 

With  the  exception  of  the  last  named  remedy,  all  the  above 
appear  to  be  without  practical  value  for  potatoes.  I  have  tried 
Paris  green,  London  purple,  kerosene  emulsion,  tobacco  powder 
and  air-slaked  lime  with  no  apparent  benefit ;  and  as  others  have 
failed  in  obtaining  satisfactory  results  with  these  as  well  as  with 
all  the  others  except  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  their  use  cannot  be 
recommended. 

The  Bordeaux  mixture,  however,  appears  to  be  a  promising 
remedy.  Jones  has  tested  the  material  very  thoroughly  and  the 
following  is  his  opinion  of  the  value  of  his  treatments.f  “The 
actual  number  of  holes  per  leaflet,  from  the  unsprayed  row  was 
found  upon  counting  to  be  262,  which  from  the  sprayed  row  the 
average  was  but  12.  .  .  .  These  results  bear  out  completely  the 
conclusions  of  last  year,  and  justify  the  claims  that  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  is  the  best  practical  remedy  known  for  the  flea-beetle  as 

*The  poison  was  introduced  by  Henry  S.  Ziegler,  400  N.  Third  street,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Pa.  It  contains  36.75  percent  arsenic  trioxide,  14.58  per  cent  of 
which  is  soluble  in  water. 

■fAnn.Rept.  Vt.  Agric.  Exp.  Sta.  1894,96. 


276 


Bulletin  113. 


it  occurs  upon  potatoes.  ”  The  leaves  examined  by  Professor 
Jones  appear  to  have  been  sprayed  with  the  mixture  June  16  and 
July  17,  and  the  results  obtained  by  him  are  decidedly  encourag¬ 
ing.  His  work  indicates  that  these  early  treatments  are  essen¬ 
tial  for  obtaining  the  most  thorough  protection,  but  as  applica¬ 
tions  of  Paris  green  are  generally  made  at  this  time  for  destroy¬ 
ing  potato  beetles,  very  little  extra  work  is  required  for  treating 
the  vines  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  also. 

The  results  of  my  work  during  1895  do  not  show  such  marked 
differences  as  those  quoted  above.  The  foliage  of  all  the  plants 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  pages  was  several  times  examined 
with  particular  regard  to  the  work  of  the  flea-beetle.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  holes  in  the  leaves  was  not  counted,  but  the  independent 
estimates  of  different  observers  practically  agreed  with  those  of 
the  writer,  and  they  may  be  considered  as  representing  fairly  well 
the  amount  of  protection  afforded  by  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Upon  the  university  farm  it  was  estimated  that  the  amount  of 
injury  upon  the  sprayed  foliage  was  from  sixty  to  seventy  per 
cent  as  much  as  upon  untreated  vines.  The  section  which  was 
treated  with  the  old  mixture  showed  less  injury  where  the  great¬ 
est  amount  of  sediment  was  applied,  and  more  at  the  other  end 
where  the  mixture  was  much  diluted. 

The  potato  foliage  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  McNair  was  also  pro¬ 
tected,  but  to  a  less  degree.  His  plants  were  treated  the  first 
time  July  19.  The  foliage  already  showed  considerable  injury 
from  the  insect,  but  no  blighting  of  the  foliage  was  apparent. 
Five  weeks  later  we  estimated  the  amount  of  flea-beetle  injury 
upon  the  section  which  received  the  most  concentrated  mixture 
to  be  about  eighty  five  per  cent  of  that  upon  untreated  vines. 
In  the  other  sections  the  difference  was  still  less  marked.  It 
would  seem  that  in  order  to  derive  the  greatest  benefit  from  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  in  preventing  the  attacks  of  flea-beetles,  the 
applications  must  be  made  during  June  and  July,  and  a  strong 
mixture  should  be  used. 


PART  III.  SPRAYING  MACHINERY. 


A  trial  of  machinery  suitable  for  the  spraying  of  potatoes  was 
made  July  18  upon  the  farm  of  J.  S.  Coombs,  Stafford,  Genesee  Co. , 
N.Y.  All  manufacturers  were  invited  to  be  present  and  to  exhibit 
machines,  for  the  field  which  Mr.  Coombs  kindly  placed  at  their 
disposal  was  particularly  well  adapted  for  such  a  trial.  The  land 
was  perfectly  level,  well  cultivated,  and  the  plants  only  about 
one-third  grown.  The  farm  is  accessible  from  three  railroads, 
and  no  more  favorable  conditions  could  have  been  desired.  The 
circular  letter  addressed  to  the  manufacturers  stated  that  the 
normal  Bordeaux  mixture  (see  page  266)  would  be  applied,  as 
this  would  give  them  an  opportunity  to  work  their  machines  under 
actual  field  conditions. 

Upon  the  appointed  day,  the  following  manufacturers  were 
represented  :  Aspinwall  Mfg.  Co.,  Jackson,  Mich.;  Deming  Co., 
Salem,  O.;  W.  &  B.  Douglas,  Middletown,  Conn.;  Excelsior 
Co.,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  Leggett  &  Bro.,  301  Pearl  St.,  New 
York;  F.  E-  Myers  &  Bro.,  Ashland,  O.;  Potter  &  Ware,  Ba¬ 
tavia,  N.  Y.  (exhibited  a  machine  made  for  their  own  use)  ;  Seth 
K.  Samms,  Byberry,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  J.  R.  Steitz,  Cudahy, 
Wis.;  Studebaker  Mfg.  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind.  The  machines 
shown  by  these  ten  exhibitors  were  of  very  varied  nature  :  small 
bucket  pumps,  barrel  pumps,  power  sprayers,  gravity  sprayers, 
and  powder  guns  were  to  be  found  among  them.  Twenty  ma¬ 
chines  were  exhibited,  and  most  of  them  were  tried  in  the  field, 
each  manufacturer  having  at  his  disposal  an  acre  of  land. 

Before  the  field  work  was  commenced,  a  committee  of  local 
potato  growers  was  appointed  ;  this  committee  was  to  judge  of 
the  merits  of  the  various  machines,  considering  them  from  the 
standpoint  of  practical  growers.  The  men,  selected  by  the  local 
Grange,  were  as  follows:  J.  G.  Fargo,  E.  D.  Rumsey,  J.  H. 
Potter,  C.  E.  Shepard,  all  of  Batavia  ;  and  Jay  Lathrop,  of  Mor- 
ganville.  Following  is  the  report  of  the  committee  : 

“  The  first  machines  in  the  field  were  those  in  which  no  pumps 
were  used  for  forcing  the  liquid.  The  only  power  used  was  the 


278 


Bulletin  113. 


force  of  gravity,  the  fluids  passing  downward  from  the  tank  to 
the  outlet  orifices.  The  Steitz  potato  sprayer  was  soon  found  to 
be  working  under  disadvantage.  The  agitator  broke  almost  at 
the  moment  of  starting.  The  machine  is  designed  to  spray  two 
rows  at  once  ;  the  liquid  runs  over  two  broad  pieces  of  galvanized 
iron,  one  being  over  each  row,  and  then  it  is  broken  up  into  a  fine 
spray  by  means  of  rapidly  revolving  brushes.  The  holes  through 


100. — An  excellent  home-made  potato  sprayer,  treating  four  rows. 

which  the  liquid  passed  upon  the  iron  were  too  small,  so  that  the 
plants  were  not  properly  covered.  Another  objection  to  the  ma¬ 
chine  was  found  in  the  tank  ;  this  was  too  small,  and  it  could  be 
increased  two  or  three  times  its  present  capacity  to  advantage. 

“The  Studebaker  machine  was  built  on  the  pattern  of  a  street- 
sprinkler.  The  mechanism  forming  the  discharge  was  designed 
to  be  so  constructed  that  any  desired  amount  of  liquid  could  be 
thrown  in  a  fairly  fine  spray.  The  machine  could  not  be  made  to 
work  satisfactorily,  as  too  much  or  too  little  liquid  was  thrown, 
and  the  spray  was  altogether  too  coarse  for  efficient  and  econom¬ 
ical  work.  Even  clear  water  was  not  thrown  satisfactorily. 

“The  Aspinwall  sprayer  was  then  tried,  the  result  being  some- 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


279 


what  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  preceding  machine.  It 
clogged  repeatedly,  and  proved  to  be  unsuited  to  throwing  Bor¬ 
deaux  mixture. 

“A  change  was  introduced  with  the  appearance  of  Samms’ 
machine,  this  being  known  as  ‘  Roberts’  Improved  Atomizer.’ 
It  is  designed  to  spray  four  rows.  Three  small  streams  of  liquid 
left  the  machine  over  each  row,  but  immediately  upon  leaving 
the  discharge  pipes,  they  were  broken  by  blasts  of  air  into  an 
exceedingly  fine  spray  which  was  well  distributed  over  the  plants. 
The  machine  worked  admirably,  and  demonstrated  its  capability 
of  spraying  4  rows  of  potatoes  as  fast  as  a  walking  team  could 
draw  it.  The  amount  of  liquid  leaving  the  discharge  pipes  was 
found  to  be  too  small,  but  this  defect  could  be  easily  remedied. 
Another  objection  was  the  cost  of  the  machine,  the  price  being 
$65.00. 

“Power  sprayers  were  represented  by  Deming’s  ‘Monarch.’ 
This  is  constructed  so  that  five  rows  may  be  sprayed  at  once.  A 
double-acting  brass  pump  is  worked  by  gearing,  and  it  is  suffi¬ 
ciently  powerful  to  supply  the  nozzles,  which  are  held  over  each 
row,  with  the  required  amount  of  liquid.  The  work  of  this 
machine  was  also  very  satisfactory.  The  spray  was  produced 
continuously,  it  was  forcibly  applied  to  the  plants,  and  the 
amount  of  liquid  thrown  could  be  varied  by  the  use  of  different 
nozzles.  The  ‘  Monarch  ’  was  one  of  the  most  useful  machines 
exhibited;  but  its  high  price,  $75.00,  is  ar  item  which  may  dis¬ 
courage  some  from  using  it. 

“  The  greatest  sensation  of  the  day,  however,  was  occasioned 
by  the  appearance  of  the  home-made  sprayer  of  Potter  and  Ware. 
Figure  100  represents  the  appearance  of  the  outfit.  An  ordinary 
barrel  spray  pump  was  fastened  to  a  barrel  having  a  capacity  of 
about  fifty  gallons.  The  liquid  was  pumped  into  a  gas-pipe 
which  was  supported  upon  a  light  frame  at  the  rear  of  the  wheels. 
This  pipe  was  fitted  with  four  discharges  to  which  nozzles  could 
be  attached.  Four  rows  were  sprayed  at  once,  the  work  being 
fairly  well  accomplished  as  the  horse  walked  across  the  field. 
Mr.  Ware  drove  and  pumped  at  the  same  time,  and  the  machine 
worked  without  a  break.  The  plants  were  uniformly  although 
rather  lightly  covered,  and  the  machine  was  pronounced  a 
decided  success  by  the  four  or  five  hundred  people  who  saw  it  in 


28o 


Bulletin  113. 


operation.  It  should  serve  as  a  model  to  potato  growers  who 
desire  this  kind  of  an  outfit. 

“The  Douglas  and  the  Deming  knapsack  pumps  were  then 
brought  into  the  field  and  both  worked  well.  The  pumps  are 
sufficiently  strong  to  force  the  Bordeaux  mixture  through  Ver- 
morel  nozzles,  and  a  very  thorough  application  could  be  made. 
But  the  severe  labor,  and  the  slow  rate  of  progress  will  prevent 
this  type  of  machine  from  becoming  popular  for  potato  spraying. 
Myers’  ‘  Fountain  Knapsack  Spray  Pump  ’  is  a  gravity  sprayer, 
the  liquid  being  forced  through  a  perforated  disk  by  means  of  a 
rubber  bulb  situated  immediately  behind  it.  Bordeaux  mixture 
could  not  be  applied  with  this  device,  as  the  holes  in  the  disk 
clogged  continually.  When  clear  water  is  used,  'good  work 
may  be  done. 

“The  powder  guns  of  Leggett  and  of  the  Excelsior  Co.,  did 
excellent  work.  They  are  easily  worked  and  efficient.  The  only 
objection  to  them  is  that  they  treat  but  one  or  two  rows  at  a  time 
and  this  becomes  a  serious  fault  when  large  areas  have  to  be 
treated.  This  objection  is  the  more  weighty  when  one  considers 
that  the  most  efficient  applications  of  powders  can  be  made  only 
on  a  still  day  and  when  the  foliage  is  wet. 

“  The  other  pumps  which  were  exhibited  were  not  tested  in  the 
potato  field.  The  Deming  and  the  Douglas  pumps  were  found  to 
be  very  strong,  serviceable,  and  apparently  durable,  and  with  the 
proper  attachments  they  could  be  made  of  service  in  spraying 
potatoes. 

“  In  conclusion,  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  committee  that  as  a  rule 
the  best  machines  are  those  in  which  a  pump  forces  the  liquid 
through  nozzles,  so  that  a  uniformly  fine  spray  may  be  produced. 
Gravity  machines,  with  the  exception  of  ‘  Roberts’  Improved 
Atomizer,’  proved  to  be  unsatisfactory,  although  the  Steitz 
machine,  if  slightly  modified,  could  be  made  serviceable.’ 

“  Signed  J.  G.  Fargo,  Chairman. 

E.  D.  Rumsey. 

J.  H.  Potter. 

C.  E.  Shepard. 

Jay  Lathrop.” 


SUMMARY. 


1 .  Potato  rot,  or  late  blight,  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  may 
develop  with  extreme  rapidity  under  favorable  circumstances  ; 
it  may  cause  the  decay  of  all  parts  of  the  potato  plant,  including 
the  tubers.  (Page  249.) 

2.  The  conditions  favoring  the  growth  of  the  parasite  are  a 
temperature  of  about  70°  F.  and  a  moist  atmosphere.  Few  sec¬ 
tions  of  New  York  are  every  year  seriously  troubled  by  the 
disease.  (Page  250.) 

3.  A  leaf  affected  by  late  blight  normally  shows  distinct 
brown  and  mostly  large  areas  of  varying  form,  but  usually  not 
circular  spots  ;  these  may  enlarge  very  rapidly,  the  under  sur¬ 
face  of  the  leaf  showing  a  frost-like  growth  in  the  parts  first 
attacked.  Unaffected  portions  of  the  leaves  retain  their  healthy 
green  color.  (Pages  251,  252.) 

4.  Tubers  affected  with  potato  rot  assume  a  dark  color  where 
the  fungus  is  found.  Where  decay  takes  place  slowly,  the  dead 
portions  become  dry  and  shrivelled  ;  during  rapid  invasions  con¬ 
siderable  moisture  may  be  present  in  the  rot.  (Page  353.) 

5.  The  early  blight  of  potatoes  does  not  cause  the  tubers  to 
rot.  A  more  or  less  rapid  drying  and  curling  of  the  leaves  and 
stems  mark  the  presence  of  the  disease.  The  edges  of  the  leaves 
are  first  visibly  affected  ;  the  color  changes  to  yellowish  brown, 
while  the  central  parts  of  the  leaflets  gradually  become  lighter 
green  or  even  yellow  and  more  or  less  spotted.  Eventually  all 
portions  above  ground  turn  brown.  (Pages  255,  257.) 

6.  Young,  vigorous  potato  plants  do  not  appear  to  suffer  from 
,  early  blight.  (Page  257). 

7.  The  probable  causes  of  early  blight,  as  found  in  New  York, 

are  the  following  :  A  fungus,  this  having  the  power  of  attack- 

* 

ing  only  such  tissues  as  have  become  weakened  to  a  certain 
extent ;  unfavorable  conditions  of  soil  or  atmosphere  ;  mechani¬ 
cal  injuries  to  the  foliage,  commonly  produced  by  flea-beetles  or 
other  insects.  (Pages  257,  261.) 

8.  Potato  scab,  as  commonly  found  upon  the  tubers,  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  a  fungus.  Similar  blemishes  have  also  been 


282  Bulletin  113. 

ascribed  to  the  work  of  bacteria,  and  to  insect  injury.  (Pages 
261,  264.) 

9.  The  late  blight  of  potatoes  may  be  successfully  treated  by 
spraying  the  vines  two  or  three  times  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 
The  first  application  should  be  made  during  the  latter  part  of 
July  ;  it  may  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  one  to  three  weeks. 
(Page  264.) 

10.  The  early  blight  of  potatoes  may  be  treated  with  partial 
success  by  means  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  vines  should 
be  sprayed  when  about  two-thirds  grown,  and  the  application 
should  be  repeated  as  necessary,  the  foliage  at  all  times  being 
well  covered  with  the  mixture.  (Pages  265,  271.) 

1 1 .  Proper  methods  of  fertilization  and  of  cultivation  have 
also  proved  to  be  of  much  value  in  reducing  injury  from  early 
blight,  as  was  shown  by  greatly  increased  yields.  (Page  271.) 

12.  The  apparent  increased  yield  per  acre  of  potatoes  sprayed 
with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  was  44.8  bushels.  (Page  270). 

13.  The  increased  yield  per  acre  of  potatoes  well  fertilized 
and  cultivated,  as  compared  with  partially  neglected  plants,  was 
100  bushels  per  acre.  (Page  271.) 

14.  Seed  potatoes  affected  with  scab  may  be  cleaned  and  made 
fit  for  planting  by  soaking  them  in  a  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate.  (Pages  271,  272.) 

15.  An  alkaline  condition  of  the  soil  favors  the  growth  of  the 
scab  fungus  ;  an  acid  condition  checks  it. 

16.  Land  in  which  the  fungus  causing  potato  scab  is  known 
to  exist  should  not  be  used  for  growing  potatoes  or  beets  except 
at  intervals  of  several  years.  Fertilizers  which  tend  to  produce 
an  acid  condition  of  the  soil  should  be  applied.  Even  treated 
seed  will  produce  scabby  potatoes,  if  the  scab  fungus  is  in  the 
soil.  (Pages  272,  273.) 

17.  Potato  beetles  may  easily  be  destroyed  by  means  of  the 
arsenites.  Paris  green  and  London  purple  are  the  safest  insecti¬ 
cides  to  use.  (Pages  274,  275.) 

18.  Flea-beetles  cannot  be  controlled  satisfactorily.  Bordeaux 
mixture  thoroughly  applied,  appears  to  be  the  best  practical  rem¬ 
edy  against  these  insects.  This  material  probably  does  not  kill 
the  beetles,  but  simply  keeps  them  away.  (Pages  275,  276.) 


Diseases  of  the  Potato. 


283 


19.  In  a  comparative  trial  of  many  kinds  of  machines  de¬ 
signed  for  spraying  potatoes,  it  was  found  that  those  machines 
were  unsatisfactory  in  which  liquids  are  distributed  wholly  by 
the  force  of  gravity. 

20.  Gravity  sprayers  are  of  value  when  the  liquids  are  broken 
into  a  spray  after  leaving  the  discharge  pipes.  This  may  be 
done  by  means  of  air  blasts  or  by  revolving  brushes. 

21.  Pumps  for  driving  the  liquids  through  nozzles  are  on  the 
whole  most  satisfactory.  They  can  be  arranged  so  that  several 
rows  may  be  sprayed  at  once. 

22.  Horse-power  sprayers  can  be  recommended  for  spraying 
potatoes.  If  the  plants  are  sprayed  for  the  potato  beetle,  one 
nozzle  over  each  row  is  sufficient ;  for  flea-beetles  and  for  fungous 
diseases,  it  is  better  to  have  two  nozzles  for  each  row,  that  a  more 
thorough  application  may  be  made. 

23.  Powder  guns  are  very  satisfactory  when  insecticides  are 
to  be  applied  to  potatoes,  although  wind  and  dry  foliage  may 
lessen  the  value  of  the  treatments. 

24.  Fungicides  should  usually  be  applied  in  liquid  form,  using 
machinery  which  will  treat  the  vines  thoroughly  as  fast  as  a  man 
or  a  horse  can  walk. 


E.  G.  Lodeman. 


Bulletin  114. 


r>*r 


Horticultural  Division  of  Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  February,  1896. 


I.  P.  ROBERTS,  Director,  Ithaca  N.  Y. 


SPRAY  CALENDAR. 


By  E  G.  LODEMAN. 


see  at  a  glance  what  to  apnlv  and  when  t,,  ,„ai  lmPoi;tant  points  regarding  sprays  have  been  selected  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  grower  can 
understanding  of  the  work  can  he  ohtaine.l  h  °  10  aPPllcatlons-  The  more  important  insect  and  fungous  enemies  are  also  mentioned,  so  that  a  fairly  clear 

also  kept  under  control  for  onlv  the  moot  .  xamimng  the  table  below.  When  making  the  applications  advised,  other  enemies  than  those  mentioned  are 
latest  results  obtained  by  leadintr  horticnliMrio/'011^  °nfS  CO,U  d  be  ln  so  brief  an  outline.  The  directions  have  been  carefully  compiled  from  the 

Notice. -In  this  calendar  it  wi n  .  entomologists,  and  they  may  be  followed  with  safety, 

applications  given  in  each  case  has  Dartiri.W^fo..81  S°U.'e  fPP^ations  arc.i*i  parentheses  and  these  are  the  ones  which  are  least  important.  The  number  of 
when  some  applications  are  advised  ?it  is  umiwMs^  l°  °ca  ltles  which  fungous  and  insect  enemies  are  most  abundant.  If  the  crops  are  not  troubled 
judgment  in  making  applications  '  Know  d,.  \°  VA6  a.ny'  ,U  s,lould  be  remembered  that  in  all  cases  success  is  dependent  upon  the  exercise  of  proper 

son.  prompt,  tLZ>-,  iTper^ -  most  effective  ;  .nd  finally,  apply  them  at  the  proper  sL 

Apple. 


'  to  success  than  any  definite  rules.  See  Bulletin  ior. 


Bean. 

Beet. 

Cabbage  and 
Cauliflower. 


Carnation. 

Celery. 

Cherry. 

Chrysanthemum. 

Cranberry. 

Currant. 

Eggplant. 

Gooseberry. 

Grape. 


Hollyhock. 

Nursery  Stock. 

Peach,  Nectarine, 
Apricot. 

Pear. 


9owc- vll Copper  sulphate  solution  before  buds  break);  2.  Bordeaux  mixture  when  leaf  buds  are  open,  but  before 
4  at  intervals  ofTbo’u^iw^wptlc?  S°2’'  “n b,oss.°“rt  ha^  fallen;  4.  Bordeaux  mixture  10  to  14  days  after  the  third;  (5,  6,  repeat 
thoroughly  2  renent  ^  t  Se*j  BuHeun  84.— Canker-worm.  1.  When  first  caterpillars  appear  apply  Paris  green  very 
soon  asSleaDins  annenr^u  B  a  n  l°  10  dayS’  <3,  4’  rePeat  every  10  daYs  lf  necessary).  See  Bulletin  101  .—Bud-moth.  1.  As 
See  Bulletin  j/  .  )uda:  Pans  green  ;  2.  repeat  1  before  the  blossom  buds  open  ;  (3.  repeat  2  when  blossoms  have  fallen). 

Paris  trrppn  at  ,  °f,lnfmoth-  !•  Paris  green  immediately  after  blossoms  have  fallen  ;  2.  repeat  1,  7  to  10  days  later  ;  (3,  4, 
deaux  mixture  /.if  °.  1  to  3  weeks  after  2,  especially  if  later  broods  are  troublesome).  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  the  Bor¬ 
deaux  mixture  and  the  two  applied  together  with  excellent  effect  .-Case- bearer.  As  for  bud  moth.  See  Bulletin  93. 

to  kee^the  foliage  cfvere'd  by  the  mixture*  mIXtUre’  when  firSt  trUe  leaf  has  exPanded!  2,  3,  etc.,  the  same,  at  short  intervals 

Leaf  spot.  1.  When  4  or  5  leaves  have  expanded,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  2,  3,  etc.,  the  same  every  10  to  14  days. 

reneat  i^vvhen  y°ung  Plants,  kerosene  emulsion  or  arsenites,  when  worms  are  first  seen  ;  2.  if  plants  are  not  heading 

worm  r  nS  1  3‘  bcKInn,uK  to  head,  hot  water  (  i3o»F.)  or  hellebore  ;  4.  repeat  3  when  necessary.-C«Mq*£ 

heading  hellebore  or  wa  ^  ft  y?’  ker°sene  emulsion  or  arsenites  ;  2.  repeat  1  at  intervals  of  7  to  10  days  ;  3.  if  plants  are 

g,  e,  or  water  at  130  to  135  F.;  4,  5,  etc.,  repeat  3  when  necessary.— Plusia.  1.  Make  very  thorough  applica- 

tions  as  recommended  under  caOOage-worm.  rui 

Anthracnose,  Rust,  Spot.  1.  At  first  appearance  of  disease,  Bordeaux  mixture  thoroughly  applied  in  fine  spray  ;  2,3, 
etc.,  if  plants  are  not  blooming,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  to  avoid  staining  the  flowers.  Keep  foliage 
covered  with  a  fungicide. — Red  spider.  Syringe  freely  with  clear  water  ;  kerosene  emulsion. 

Leaf-blight.  Rust.  1.  Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  at  first  appearance  of  disease  ;  repeat  1  to  keep  foliage  protected. 

Black-knot.  See  Plum.—  Rot.  1.  When  buds  break,  Bordeaux  mixture;  2.  when  fruit  has  set,  repeat  1;  3,  when 
fruit  is  grown,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate. — Aphis.  1.  Kerosene  emulsion  when  insects  appear;  2,  3,  repeat  at  intervals  of 
3  to  4  days  if  necessary. — Slug .  j.  When  insects  appear,  arsenites,  hellebore  or  air-slaked  lime  ;  2,  3,  repeat  1  in  10  to  14  days 
if  necessary. 

^  ^  Leaf  spot.  1.  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  at  intervals  of  10  to  14  days,  to  keep  foliage  pro- 

L ire-worm,  Fruit-worm.  1.  When  larvae  first  appear,  arsenites,  kerosene  emulsion,  or  tobacco  water  ;  2,  after  10  to  14 
days  repeat  1  ;  3,  repeat  if  necessary. 

Leaf-blights.  1.  When  injury  first  appears,  before  the  fruit  is  harvested,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  to  avoid  stain- 
mg  the  fruit  ,  2.  After  fruit  is  harvested,  Bordeaux  mixture  freely  applied  ;  3,  repeat  2  when  necessary. —  IVorm.  1  TT7hen 
first  leaves  are  nearly  expanded,  arsenites  ;  2.  After  10  to  14  days,  hellebore  ;  3,  repeat  2  if  necessary. 

Leaf -spot .  1.  As  soon  as  plants  are  established  in  the  field, Bordeaux  mixture  ;  2,  3.  repeat  1  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  weeks 

till  first  fruits  are  grown  ;  4.  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate,  repeat  when  necessary. 

Mlldew.  1.  Before  buds  break,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  2,  when  first  leaves  have  expanded,  Bordeaux  mixture  or  potassium 
sulphide  ;  3,  4,  etc.  repeat  2  at  intervals  of  7  to  10  days,  if  necessary  throughout  the  summer.  Avoid  staining  the  fruit. — 
Currant  worm,  see  under  currant. 

Anthracnose .  1.  Before  buds  break  in  spring,  sulphate  of  iron  and  sulphuric  acid  solution  ;  2.  Repeat  1  after  3  or  4 

days  to  cover  untreated  portions.  Black-rot.  (1,  as  soon  as  first  leaves  are  fully  expanded,  Bordeaux  mixture).  2.  after  fruit 
has  set,  Bordeaux  mixture;  3  repeat  2  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  weeks  until  fruit  is  grown;  4.  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  when 
fruit  is  nearly  grown.  5,  6,  etc.  repeat  4  at  intervals  of  7  to  14  days  as  required. — Downy  mildew,  Powdery  mildew,  the  first 
application  recommended  under  Black-rot  are  of  especial  importance.  See  Bulletin  ■jb.—Ripe-rot,  apply  very  thoroughly  the 
later  applications  recommended  under  Black-rot. — Steely-bug.  1.  As  buds  are  swelling,  arsenites;  2,  after  10  to  14  days,  repeat  1. 

Rust.  1.  In  spring,  when  foliage  expands,  Bordeaux  mixture;  2,  3,  etc.  apply  a  good  fungicide  at  short  intervals  to 
keep  new  growths  covered. 

Fungous  diseases.  1.  When  first  leaves  appear,  Bordeaux  mixture;  2,  3,  etc.  repeat  1  at  intervals  of  10  to  14  days 
to  keep  foliage  well  covered. 

Biown  >ot.  1.  Before  buds  swell,  copper  sulphate  solution  ;  (2.  before  flowers  open,  Bordeaux  mixture)  ;  3,  when  fruit 
has  set,  repeat  1  ;  4.  repeat  after  10  to  14  days  ;  5.  when  fruit  is  nearly  grown,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  •  6,  7  etc 
repeat  5  at  intervals  of  5  to  7  days  if  necessary.  For  Yellows,  see  Bulletin  75. 

Leaf-blight  or  Fruit-spot.  (1.  As  buds  are  swelling  copper  sulphate  solution)  ;  2.  just  before  blossoms  open,  Bordeaux 
mixture  ,  3,  after  fruit  has  set,  repeat  2  ;  4,  5,  etc.  repeat  2  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  weeks  as  appears  necessary.  —  Leaf -blister .  1 

Before  buds  swell  in  spring,  kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  5  to  7  times  —Psylla.  1.  When  first  leaves  have  unfolded  in  spring, 
kerosene  emulsion  diluted  15  times  ;  2,  3,  etc.  at  intervals  of  2  to  6  days  repeat  1  until  the  insects  are  destroyed.  See  Bulletin 
108. — Mug.  See  under  CHERRY. 


Plum. 


Potato. 


Quince. 


Raspberry,  Black¬ 
berry,  Dewberry. 

Rose. 


Strawberry. 

Tomato. 

Violet. 


Brown-rot.  See  under  peach.—  Leaf -blight.  (1.  When  first  leaves  have  unfolded,  Bordeaux  mixture);  2.  When 
fruit  has  set,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  3,  4,  etc.  repeat  2  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  weeks,  use  a  clear  fungicide  after  fruit  is  J4  grown. 
Black-knot.  ’  1.  During  first  warm  days  of  early  spring,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  2.  repeat  1  when  buds  are  swelling  ;  3.  during 
latter  part  of  May,  repeat  1  ;  4.  repeat  1  during  middle  of  June  (5,  repeat  1  in  July).  See  Bulletin  81 . — Curculio,  spiaying  is  not 
always  satisfactory  ;  jar  the  trees  after  fruit  has  set,  at  intervals  of  1  to  3  days  during  2  to  5  weeks. — Plum  Scale.  1.  In  autumn 
when  leaves  have  fallen,  kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  4  times ;  2  and  3.  in  spring,  before  buds  open,  repeat  1.  See  Bulletin  108. 
—San  Jose  Scale.  Thorough  applications  of  kerosene  emulsion  as  recommended  under  Plum  Scale  may  prove  effective  if 
followed  later  in  the  season  by  others,  diluting  the  emulsion  to  avoid  injuring  foliage. 

Early  blight.  1.  When  vines  are  grown,  Bordeaux  mixture;  2  and  3.  repeat  1  at  intervals  of  2  to  3  weeks  (only 
partially  successful). — Rot.  1.  During  middle  of  July,  Bordeaux  mixture;  2  and  3.  at  intervals  of  1  to  3  weeks,  repeat  1. — 
Scab.  Soak  uncut  seed  potatoes  1  j4  hours  in  solution  of  1  ounce  corrosive  sublimate  in  8  gallons  water. — Potato  beetle.  1. 
When  beetles  first  appear,  arsenites.  2  and  3.  repeat  1  when  necessary.  See  Bulletin  113. 

Leaf-blight,  or  Fruit-spot.  (When  blossom  buds  appear,  Bordeaux  mixture)  ;  2.  when  fruit  has  set,  repeat  1 ;  3,  4,  etc. 
repeat  1  at  intervals  of  2  weeks,  until  fruit  is  %  grown  ;  if  later  treatments  are  necessary,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate.  See 
Bulletin  80. 

Anthracnose.  i.  Before  buds  break  copper  sulphate  solution,  also  cut  out  badly  infested  canes  ;  2.  when  growth  has 

commenced,  Bordeaux  mixture ;  3,  4,  etc.  repeat  2  at  intervals  of  1  to  3  weeks,  avoid  staining  fruit  by  use  of  clear  fungicide. 

(Partially  successful. )— Orange-rust.  Remove  and  destroy  affected  plants  as  soon  as  discovered.  See  Bulletin  ico.—  Saw-fly.  1. 
When  first  leaves  have  expanded,  arsenites  ;  2.  after  2  to  3  weeks  repeat  1,  or  apply  kerosene  emulsion  (unsatisfactory). 

Black-spot.  Spray  plants  once  a  week  with  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate. — Mildew.  Keep  heating  pipes  painted  with 
equal  parts  lime  and  sulphur  mixed  with  water  to  form  a  thin  paste.  Spray  with  copper  fungicides. — Aphis,  Leaf-hopper . 
Kerosene  emulsion,  or  tobacco  water  applied  to  the  insect’s  bodies  at  short  intervals,  is  effective.—  Red  spider.  Spray  as  for 
Aphis,  or  with  forcible  streams  of  clear  water. 

Leaf -blight.  1.  When  growth  begins  in  spring,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  2.  when  first  fruits  are  setting,  repeat  1 ;  3.  during 
fruiting  reason,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  ;  4.  after  fruiting,  or  on  non-beating  plants,  Bordeaux  mixture  at  intervals  of  1 
to  3  weeks  See  Bulletin  79  -Saiv-fty.  Spray  plants  when  not  in  bearing  with  arsenites,  repeating  application  if  necessary. 

Leaf-blight.  1.  As  soon  as  disease  is  discovered,  Bordeaux  mixture  or  a  clear  fungicide.  2,  3,  etc.  repeat  1  at  intervals 
of  7  to  10  days  —Rot.  Spray  as  directed  under  leaf-blight  (unsatisfactory  in  many  cases). 

Blight ;  Spot.  1.  When  disease  is  first  seen  in  summer  or  fall,  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  2,  3,  etc.  repeat  one  at  intervals  of  1 
to  2  weeks,  using  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  to  avoid  staining  blossoms.  (Not  always  satisfactory  as  good  culture  must  also 
be  given.)  Remove  affected  leaves. 


RO  R  M 

Paris  Green. 

Paris  green . . 1  pound 

Water  .  150-300  gallons 

If  this  mixture  is  to  be  used  upon  fruit  trees,  1  pound  of  quicklime 
should  be  added,  and  repeated  applications  will  injure  most  foliage,  unless 
the  lime  is  used.  Paris  green  and  Bordeaux  mixture  can  be  applied 
together  with  perfect  safety.  Use  at  the  rate  of  4  ounces  of  the  arsenites  to 
50  gallons  of  the  mixture.  The  action  of  neither  is  weakened,  and  the 
Paris  green  loses  all  caustic  properties.  For  insects  which  chew. 

London  Purple. 

This  is  used  in  the  same  proportion  as  Paris  green,  but  as  it  is  more  caus 
tic  it  should  be  applied  with  two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  lime,  or  with 
tl,«  BoE 

ueaux  mixture.  The  composition  of  London  pur°ple  is  variable,  and 
unless  good  reasons  exist  for  supposing  that  it  contains  as  much  arsenic  as 
Paris  green,  use  the  latter  poison.  Do  not  use  London  purple  on  oeach  or 
plum  trees  unless  considerable  lime  is  added.  For  insects  wh  ich  chew 


Normal  or  1.6  Per  Cent  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Copper  Sulphate . « Pou“ds 

. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  by  putting  it  in  a  bag  of  coarse  cloth  and 
hanging  this  in  a  vessel  holding  at  least  4  g^ons,  so  that  it  is  just  covered 
by  the  water.  Use  an  earthen  or  wooden  vessel  Shake  the  lime  in  an 
enual  amount  of  water.  Then  mix  the  two  and  add  enough  water  to  make 
XaCs It  is  then  ready  for  immediate  use.  If  the  mixture  is  to  be 
used  on  peach  foliage  it  is  advisable  to  add  two  pounds  of  lime  in  the  above 
formula  When  applied  to  such  plants  as  carnations  or  cabbages  it  will 
adhere  better  if  about  a  pound  of  hard  soap  lie  dissolved  in  hot  water  and 
added  to  the  mixture.  For  rots,  moulds,  mildews,  and  all  fungous  diseases. 

Iron  Sulphate  and  Sulphuric  Acid  Solution. 

,  .  . .  100  parts 

Water  (hot) . . . n 

Iron  sulphate,  as  much  as  the  water  will  dissolve.  ^  t 

SUTtmUsolution ' should  "be3  prepared  just  before  using.  Add  the  acid  to  the 
crystals  and  then  pour  on  the  water.  Valuable  for  grape  anthracnose,  the 
dormant  vines  being  treated  by  means  of  sponges  or  brushes. 

Potassium  Sulphide  Solution. 

Potassium  sulphide  .  gallon 

WThis  preparation  loses  its  strength  upon  standing,  so  should  be  made 
immediately  before  using.  Particularly  valuable  for  surface  mildews. 


U  L  AS. 

Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate. 

Copper  carbonate  . I  oz. 

Ammonia,  enough  to  dissolve  the  copper. 

Water  . 9  gallons 

Before  making  the  solution,  the  ammonia  should  be  prepared  as  follows  : 
Use  26°  ammonia,  and  dilute  with  7  to  8  volumes  of  water.  Then  gradually 
add  the  necessary  amount  to  the  copper  carbonate  until  all  is  dissolved.  It 
is  best  treated  in  large  bottles,  and  in  them  it  will  keep  indefinitely.  Dilute 
as  required.  For  same  purposes  as  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Copper  Sulphate  Solution. 

Conner  sulohate  .  . . I  pound 


Water  .  . 15  gallons 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  the  water,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  This 
should  never  be  applied  to  foliage,  but  must  be  used  before  the  buds  break. 
For  peaches  and  nectarines  use  25  gallons  of  water.  For  fungous  diseases. 


Hellebore. 

Fresh  white  hellebore . 1  ounce 

Water . . . 3  gallons 

Apply  when  thoroughly  mixed.  This  poison  is  not  so  energetic  as  the 
arsenites,  and  may  be  used  a  short  time  before  the  sprayed  portions  mature. 
For  insects  which  chew. 

Kerosene  Emulsion. 

Hard  soap  .  — . 'A  pound 

Boiling  water .  .  I  gallon 

Kerosene  .  .  .  . 2  gallons 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  the  water,  add  the  kerosene,  and  churn  with  a  pump 
for  5-10  minutes  Dilute  4  to  25  times  before  applying.  Use  strong  emul¬ 
sion  for  all  scale  insects.  For  such  insects  as  plant  lice,  mealy  bugs,  red 
spider,  thrips,  weaker  preparations  will  prove  effective  Cabbage  worms, 
currant  worms  and  all  insects  which  have  soft  bodies,  can  also  be  success¬ 
fully  treated.  It  is  advisable  to  make  the  emulsion  shortly  before  it  is 
used. 

Tobacco  Water. 

This  solution  may  be  prepared  by  placing  tobacco  stems  in  a  water-tight 
vessel,  and  then  covering  them  with  hot  water.  Allow  to  stand  several 
hours,  dilute  the  liquor  from  3  to  5  times  and  apply.  For  soft  bodied 
insects. 


-J  ’  1  £  V 

K, 


Bulletin  115.  February,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 


HORTICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT. 


THE 

POLE  LIMA  BEANS. 


By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY. 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob 

Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  ROBERTS, 

Professor  I  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 

Professor  James  Law,  -  -  . 

Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Gould  Schurman. 

Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ------  Director. 

E.  L.  Williams,  ------  Treasurer. 

H.  W.  Smith,  ------  Clerk. 


ASSISTANTS 


M.  V.  SlingERLAnd, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


i 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

v  The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

112.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

113.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  ) 

Feb.  29,  1896.  } 

Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir :  The  following  paper — a  complement  to  No.  87,  upon  the 
Dwarf  Lima  beans — is  submitted  for  publication  and  distribution 
under  Chapter  230  of  the  Laws  of  1895.  L.  H.  Bailey. 


SYNOPSIS. 


I.  Types  and  Varieties,  pages  293  to  306. 


A. 

The  sievas,  ...... 

294 

B. 

The  large  flat  Limas,  .  .  * 

.  .  296 

C. 

The  potato  Limas,  .... 

300 

D. 

Varieties  not  tested,  .... 

.  .302 

E. 

The  Horticultural  Lima, 

303 

F. 

The  Chickasaw  Lima  or  Jack  bean, 

•  303 

II.  Remarks  on  the  Growing  of  Lima  Beans,  pages  306  to  314. 


1.  Methods  for  New  York,  .....  306 

2.  The  California  practice,  .  .  .  .  .  *310 

III.  Index,  .........  314 


io8. — New  Extra  Early  Lima  Bean.  Natural  size.  See  page  297. 


THE  POLE  LIMA  BEANS. 


I.  Types  and  Varieties. 

About  a  year  ago  we  tried  to  say  something  (Bulletin  87)  about 
the  dwarf  Lima  beans.  We  found  that  those  beans  are  all  modern 
developments  from  the  pole  Limas,  and  that  they  represent  each 
of  the  three  types  or  tribes  of  Lima  beans, — the  Sieva,  Flat  and 
Potato  Lima  types.  A  discussion  of  the  botanical  features  and  the 
history  of  these  groups  was  then  given,  and  it  is  therefore  unnec¬ 
essary  to  repeat  the  account  here.  We  need  only  recapitulate 
the  leading  marks  of  the  groups. 

The  Sieva  or  Carolina  bean  is  a  small  and  slender  grower  as 
compared  with  the  large  Limas,  early  and  hardy,  truly  annual, 
with  thin,  short  and  broad  (ovate-pointed)  leaflets,  numerous, 
small  papery  pods  which  are  much  curved  on  the  back  and  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  long  upward  point  or  tip  and  which  split  open  and 
twist  when  ripe,  discharging  the  seeds  ;  beans  small  and  flat, 
white,  brown,  or  variously  marked  with  red.  This,  like  the  true 
Lima,  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and  was  early  cultivated  by 
the  aborigines  of  North  America  and  countries  to  the  southward. 
It  is  the  plant  which  Linnaeus  meant  to  designate  by  the  name 
Phaseolus  lunatus .  The  distinguishing  marks  of  the  pods  of  the 
Sieva  beans  may  be  seen  in  Figs.  102  and  103  ;  and  the  beans  of 
two  of  the  varieties  are  shown  in  Fig.  101.  The  reader  may  con¬ 
sult  Bulletin  87  for  fuller  information  of  the  botany  and  history  of 
the  Lima  beans. 

The  true  Lima  bean  is  distinguished  from  the  Sieva  by  its  tall 
growth,  lateness,  greater  susceptibility  to  cold,  perennial  in  trop¬ 
ical  climates,  large  thick  often  ovate-lanceolate  leaflets,  and  fewer 
thick  fleshy  straightish  (or  sometimes  laterally  curved)  pods  with  a 
less  prominent  point  and  not  readily  splitting  open  at  maturity  ; 
seeds  much  larger,  white,  red,  black  or  speckled.  The  botanical 
name  of  this  plant  is  Phaseolus  lunatus  var.  macrocarpus.  Of  this 
true  or  large  Lima  there  are  two  types  in  cultivation  : 


294 


Bulletin  115. 


The  Flat  or  Large-seeded  Limas,  which  have  large,  very  flat 
and  more  or  less  lunate  and  veiuy  seeds,  very  broad  pods 
with  a  distinct  point  and  broad  ovate  leaflets.  See  figs.  107 
and  109  for  foliage  ;  106,  108  and  no  for  pods  ;  and  101 
for  the  beans. 

The  Potato  Limas,  with  smaller  and  tumid  seeds,  shorter  and 
thicker  pods  with  a  less  prominent  point,  and  long- ovate 
leaflets  tapering  from  a  more  or  less  angular  base  into  a 
long  apex.  See  figs  1 1 2  for  foliage  ;  1 1 1  and  1 13  for  pods  ; 
and  101  for  the  beans. 


Kaighu.  Willow-Iyeaf.  Speckled.  Black.  Dreer. 

10 1.  —  Types  of  Lima  beans.  Natural  size. 


A.  The  Sievas. — 

There  are  four  dwarf  varieties  of  the  Sieva  type,  the  Henderson, 
Jackson,  Dwarf  Carolina,  and  Northrop,  Braslan  and  Goodwin 
Dwarf  Lima.  The  Sievas  are  valuable  chiefly  because  of  their 
earliness.  The  beans  are  not  so  rich  as  those  of  the  large  Limas, 
and  seem  to  us  to  be  scarcely  worth  the  growing  where  the  latter 
can  be  successfully  raised. 

Last  37ear  we  made  an  effort  to  grow  all  tall  Lima  beans.  The 
seeds  were  all  started  in  good  garden  soil  on  the  31st  of  May,  and 
kept  in  very  clean  cultivation  throughout  the  season.  Amongst 
the  pole  or  running  Limas,  the  following,  in  our  test,  are  Sievas  : 


The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 


295 


1.  Snail  Carolina  or  Sieva  Lima. — An  early  variety  which 
began  to  bloom  July  29,  and  ripened  its  crop  before  frost.  Green 
beans  were  ready  for  the  table  late  in  August.  The  beans  are 
small,  clear  white,  three  or  sometimes  four  in  the  small  and  pro¬ 
fuse  papery  pods.  It  is  a  heavy  grower,  a  tall  climber  and  very 

productive.  Hender¬ 
son  Dwarf  is  like  this 
except  in  stature. 

Seeds  from  Burpee. 

2.  Black  or  Early 
Black  (Figs.  101,  102). 

— Differs  from  the  last 
chiefly  in  the  color 
and  shape  of  the  beans , 
which  are  black  (or 
deep  purple-black) 
blotched  and  stained 
with  white  near  the 
ventral  edge,  more  or 
less  angular  or  irreg¬ 
ular  in  shape.  Ripen¬ 
ed  its  crop  well.  Very 
productive.  Thebeans 
are  in  every  way  as 
good  in  quality  as  the 
white  sievas.  Sent 
out  for  trial  by  Burpee 
in  1 892  and  introduced 
by  him  in  1893.  Var 
ious  purple  spotted 
sievas  have  long  been 
known.  Seeds  from  Thorburn  and  Burpee. 

3.  Willow-Leaf  (Figs.  101,  103,  104,  105).- — Later  than  No.  1, 
with  which  it  is  practically  identical  in  the  beans  and  pods. 
The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  interesting  bean  is  the  very 
curious  foliage.  The  typical  form  of  leaf  is  shown  in  Fig.  104, 
but  the  bean  is  not  well  fixed,  and  many  plants  bear  leaves  as 
shown  in  Fig.  105  or  even  as  broad  as  those  of  the  ordinary 
Sieva.  The  Willow-Leaf  Lima  is  a  very  ornamental  plant, 


102.  Black  Lima. 
Natural  size. 


103.  Willow- Leaf, 
size. 


Full 


\ 


296 


Bulletin  115. 


and  is  worth  growing  for  its  attractive  foliage  and  habit.  It  is 
a' tall  grower,  and  if  given  a  moist  soil,  would  make  an  effectual 


i , 


screen  until  frost  comes.  We  have 
three  years,  but  have  never  prized 
vegetable  garden.  It  is  a  sport  or 
mon  sieva  type.  It  was  introduced 
tributed  for  trial  in  1891)  by  Bur- 
it  from  the  South.  Seeds  from 
B.  The  large  flat  Limas. — 

Of  the  large  white 
are  several  important 
type  of  bean  is  the  one 
represents  the  species 
dens.  It  is  much  su- 
the  sieva  type  in  bear¬ 
ing  larger  and  much 
richer  beans.  The  ear¬ 
lier  strains  mature 
most  of  their  crop  in 
central  New  York,  if 
properly  grown.  The 
filled  green  pods 
which  remain  when 
frost  comes  yield  ex¬ 
cellent  green  beans  for 
the  table.  Burpee  Dwarf 
is  an  offshoot  of  this  type  of 
Lima. 

4.  Large  White. — The  old  stock 
of  Lima  bean,  from  which  most 
sprung.  It  was  catalogued  by 
as  1838.  It  has  probably  been 
edTn  the  meantime,  however.  As 


grown  it  two  or 
it  greatly  for  the 
offshoot  of  the  com- 
in  1892  (but  dis- 
pee,  who  received 
Burpee. 

or  flat  Limas  there 
varieties.  This 
which  chiefly 
in  the  gar- 


Willow-Leaf. 
Half  size. 

other  varieties  have 
Dreer  as  long  ago 
somewhat  improv- 
we  grew  it  last  year, 
short  or  medium 


it  had  little  value.  The  growth  was 
(not  climbing  strongly),  and  it  was  late  and  unproductive.  Al¬ 
though  it  began  to  bloom  as  early  as  the  sievas,  it  had  ripened 
very  few  beans  by  the  first  of  October.  The  pods  were  medium 


The  Poee  Lima  Beans. 


297 


large,  flat  and  curved,  with  a  short  tip.  Beans  flat,  clear  white, 
two  to  three  in  a  pod.  Of  a  variety  which  has  been  so  long 
cultivated,  there  are  certain  to  be  strains  of  varying  merit.  Very 
likely  the  exact  type  cultivated  twenty  years  ago  is  now  unknown. 
Seeds  from  Burpee. 


5.  Jersey. — A  good 
early  strain  of  the 
Large  White  Lima, 
usually  a  week  or  ten 
days  earlier.  A  strong, 
tall  grower.  Pods  me¬ 
dium  size,  much  curv¬ 
ed  when 
ripe,  and 
strongly 
tip -point¬ 
ed.  Beans 
medium 
size,  flat, 
greenish 
white,  av¬ 
er  aging 
two  or  three 
in  a  pod. 

Seeds  from  Landreth. 

6.  Bliss  (Bliss's  Extra 
Early ,  Extra  Early ,  Extra 
Early  Jersey )  Fig.  106. — 

A  good  early  bean,  fully  as 
early  as  No.  5,  and  more  productive. 
Tall,  bearing  broad  pods  of  medium 

length  with  three  to  five  large  flat 

106.  Bliss.  Natural  size.  u  •  .  ~ 

greenish  white  beans  m  each.  One  of 

the  very  best  of  the  early  strains  of  the  large  Limas.  Introduced 

by  B.  K.  Bliss  &  Sons,  1878.  Seeds  from  Rawson,  and  May. 

7.  New  Extra  Early  (Figs.  107,  108).— A  low  plant  (2  to  4 

feet  high),  mostly  not  disposed  to  climb,  with  large  pods,  each 


105.  Willow  Leaf. 
Half  size. 


298 


Bulletin  115. 


containing  three  or  four  rather  large  white  beans.  Began  to 
bloom  the  19th  of  July,  but  was  not  so  early  in  maturing  fruit  as 
No.  6.  It  is  probably  the  same  as  No.  6,  however,  the  difference 
K  being  due  to  seeds  or  other  inciden¬ 

tal  circumstances.  Seeds  from  Bur¬ 
pee. 


\ 


\ 


•  -V. 


8.  Platt ,  or  Plait's  King  of  the 
Garden  (also  called 
King  of  the  Garden ) . 
— A  very  large- pod¬ 
ded  bean,  late,  pro- 
/  .-  ,  ducing  very  large  and 

excellent  white  kid¬ 
ney-shaped  beans.  A 
short  and  slender 
grower,  and  not  very 
productive  with  us 
last  year.  Sent  out 
by  Frank  S.  Platt, 
New  Haven,  Conn., 
as  early  as  1886,  and  said  to  be  a  cross 
of  the  Large  White  Lima  and  Dreer 
Improved.  Seeds  from  Burpee,  and 
Perry  (Syracuse). 

9.  Mammoth  Kidney-Shaped  (Figs. 
109,  1 10). — A  good  selection  of  the  Large  White  Lima,  the  strain 
we  grew  being  a  medium  tall  grower,  bearing  broad  and  short' 
tipped  pods  of  medium  size,  and  white,  flat,  kidney-shaped  me¬ 
dium  sized  beans.  Productive,  and  ripens  most  of  its  crop  before 
frost.  A  kidney-shaped  form  of  the  Large  White  Lima  was  cat¬ 
alogued  as  early  as  1846  by  Coates.  Seeds  from  Livingston’s 
Sons. 


V. 


107.  New  Extra 
Early.  Elalf 
size. 


£3 


10.  Kaiglm,  or  Kaighyi' s  Improved  (Fig.  101). — The  best  large 
Lima  on  our  grounds  last  year.  Medium  strong  grower,  bearing 
heavily  of  very  large  curved  and  pointed  pods.  Beans  three  or 
four  to  the  pod,  very  large  and  flat,  white,  of  most  excellent  qual¬ 
ity.  Ripened  well  before  frost-  The  variety  is  a  selection  out  of 


The  Poee  Tima  Beans. 


299 


the  Tong  White  Tima  by  John  M.  Kaighn,  Camden,  N.  J.  Seeds 

from  Tandreth. 

May  Champion. — An  extra 
strain  of  Targe  White  Tima,  with  very  large 
and  broad  curved  tip-pointed  pods,  and 


12.  Speckled  Lima  (Fig.  101). — An  early 
form  of  Tima,  with  handsome,  medium  sized 
flat  beans  which  are  speckled  and  blotched 


no.  Mammoth  Kidney- 
Shaped.  Full  size. 


300 


Bulletin  115. 


with  very  dark  red-brown.  Pods  rather  long  and  slender,  tipped, 
containing  three  or  four  beans.  A  tall  grower,  ripening  about  all  its 

crop  before  frost.  A  good  bean,  but  the 
color  is  objectionable  to  most  persons. 
The  Speckled  Tima  originated  in  1867, 
and  is  said  to  be  a  cross  of  the  common 
Tima  with  Red- Seeded  Giant  Wax  Pole 
Bean,  but  I  fail  to  discover  any  evidences 
of  hybridity .  It  is  possible  that  there  are 
different  breeds  of  this  Speckled  or  “  strip¬ 
ed”  bean,  and  that  our  strain  is  not  a 
direct  descendent  of  the  form  introduced 
in  1867.  Seeds  from  Thorburn.  Red 
Tima  is  evidently  the  same. 

C.  The  Potato  Limas. — 

The  Potato  Tima  type  was  represented 
in  our  test  by  two  kinds.  The  Kumerle, 
Thorburn  or  Dreer  Dwarf  Tima  belongs 
to  this  type.  The  beans  are  perhaps  the 
richest  in  quality  of  all  the  Timas. 

13.  Dreer  Improved  { Figs.  101,  111). 
— A  most  excellent  bean,  producing  al¬ 
most  straight  pods  of  medium  size,  lack¬ 
ing  the  tip,  thick  and  without  the  thin 
edges  of  the  common  large  Timas.  Beans 
three  to  four  in  each  pod,  of  medium 
size,  irregular  in  shape,  turgid  and 
rounded  on  the  edges,  dull  or  greenish 
white,  of  best  quality.  A  strong  grower, 
productive,  and  ripening  a  large  part  of 
its  crop  before  frost,  although  not  so 
early  as  two  or  three  of  the  varieties  of 
the  large  Tima.  This  variety  can  be 
strongly  recommended  for  its  quality  and 
for  the  large  yield  of  shelled  beans  in 


hi. 


Dreer  Improved. 
Full  size. 


proportion  to  the  bulk  of  pods. 

This  bean  was  offered  first  time  in  Dreer’s  Garden  Calendar  of 
1875.  This  is  the  description  then  given:  “This  bean  is  the 


The  Poee  Pima  Beans. 


301 


product  of  the  green  wrinkled  variety  obtained  from  Mr.  H. 
Kimber,  of  Kimberton,  Chester  County,  Pa.,  about  thirty  years 
ago.  Selections  of  the  best  specimens  were  annually  made  for 
seed  until  the  bean  has  increased  in  early  maturity 

and  size,  and  established  the  present  standard 

character. 

“Thedis-  tinctive  features  of  this  sort  are  early 

m  aturity, 
prolificness 
and  extra 


"  :  >-  \  I 

'V  ;  ' 

V  ' 


'  -A  v  ,.  '*  ■  . \  s  V. 

... 

^ 


1 1 2 .  Challenger . 
Half  size. 

containing 
matter  and  pro- 
more  shelled 


quality  of  bean  ; 
more  saccharine 
ducing  one-third 

beans  to  the  pole  than  the  Large  Pima,  while 
the  shelling  becomes  an  easy  matter,  from 
the  fact  of  the  pods  being  entirely  full  of  beans,  forming [  one 
against  the  other  like  peas  in  a  pod. 

“  Th  z.  American  Agriculturist  of  November  1874,  says:  ‘In 
these  beans  the  pods  are  not  only  full,  with  no  spaces  between, 


1 13.  Challenger. 
Full  size. 


302 


Bulletin  115. 


but  are  as  full  as  they  can  stick,  the  seeds  so  crowding  one  another 
that  the  ends  of  the  central  beans  are  square  ;  the  bean  is  also 
much  thicker  than  the  ordinary  kind.  A  vine  of  this  kind  bear¬ 
ing  the  same  number  of  pods  as  one  of  the  ordinary  variety  would, 
we  should  judge,  yield  nearly  if  not  twice  as  much  in  shelled 
beans.  The  pod  being  so  completely  filled,  the  shelling  becomes 
an  easy  matter,  and  the  beans  when  cooked  are  much  superior  to 
the  ordinary  ones,  as  the  amount  of  skins  is  much  smaller  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  enclosed  nutriment. 

“  ‘We  regard  the  improving  of  this  bean  as  one  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  of  the  recent  contributions  to  horticulture.’  ” 

14.  Challenge  or  Clialleyiger  (Figs.  112,  113). — So  like  Dreer 
Improved  that  I  cannot  distinguish  any  constant  differences,  but 
the  pods  are  perhaps  shorter.  Introduced  some  years  ago  by  J.  M. 
Thorburn  &  Co.  Seeds  from  Livington’s  Sons. 

John  W.  Kumerle,  Newark,  New  Jersey,  a  well  known  Lima 
bean  grower  and  the  originator  of  the  Kumerle  or  Thorburn 
dwarf  Lima,  writes  me  as  follows  respecting  this  bean  :  “I  have 
sold  this  variety  for  a  number  of  years  under  the  name  of  Hedden 
Lima  bean.  It  is  the  same  as  J.  M.  Thorburn  &  Co.  of  New 
York  City  sell  as  Challenge.  I  receive  my  supply  from  V.  J. 
Hedden,  Esq.,  of  East  Orange,  N.  J.  This  bean  has  been  in  the 
Hedden  family  for  at  least  eighty  years  and  they  have  been  very 
particular  in  selecting  them  every  year  for  seed  until  they  have 
succeeded  in  producing  a  bean  that  yields  from  five  to  six  beans 
in  the  pod.  ” 

D.  Varieties  not  tested. — 

Other  varieties  of  true  Lima  beans  which  were  catalogued  last 
year  but  which  we  did  not  grow,  are  the  following  : 

Ford' s  Mammoth  Podded — “Selected  by  James  Ford  of  Phila¬ 
delphia  from  Large  Lima,  with  reference  to  five  and  six  beans  in 
pod  of  large  size  ;  the  pod  is  also  very  and  unnecessarily  large.” 

Salem  Mammoth — A  greenish  Lima,  similar  to  the  Ford,  from 
Salem  Co.,  New  Jersey. 

Stokes'  Evergreen  or  Mammoth  Green  Jersey — “A  very  large 
green-seeded  Lima.  Valuable  because  it  retains  its  green  color 
even  after  ripening.  ”  Our  seeds  of  this  variety  failed  to  grow. 


The  Polk  Lima  Beans. 


303 


Washington  Market — We  know  it  only  by 
name  (catalogued  by  Perry  Seed  Store,  Syracuse). 
E.  The  Horticultural  Lima . — 

There  are  two  other  species  of  beans  which  are 
sometimes  known  as  Limas,  which  should  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection.  The  Horticultural 
Lima  (Fig.  114)  is  one  of  these.  This  is  not  a 
Lima  bean  at  all,  but  simply  a  form  of  the  com¬ 
mon  garden  pole  bean  ( Phaseolus  vulgaris').  It  is 
not  a  vigorous  climber,  reaching  only  three  or 
four  feet  high,  ripening  its  slender  pods  very  early. 
The  beans  are  dun-colored  with  pretty  brown 
markings.  A  good  and  early  bean  (maturing 
before  any  of  the  Limas),  valuable  either  for  a 
“  shelled  ”  bean  or  for  use  when  fully  ripe.  A 
Horticultural  Lima  was  raised  some  years  ago  by 
O.  H.  Alexander,  Charlotte,  Vermont,  and  I 
suppose  that  the  current  stock  passing  under  this 
name  is  the  same  bean.  Mr.  Alexander  describ¬ 
ed  the  variety  as  follows  :  ‘  ‘  This  is  a  cross  from 

the  Boston  Horticultural  bush  bean  on  Dreer’s 

\ 

Extra  Early  Lima,  and  I  find  it,  after  testing  it 
several  years,  to  be  the  best  of  all  pole  beans.  In 
color  and  foliage  it  resembles  the  Horticultural ; 
in  form  it  resembles  the  Lima.  The  quality  I 
find  is  superior  to  either  of  its  parents.  It  is 
very  prolific,  and  throws  out  handsome  green 
pods  from  five  to  six  inches  long.”  It  is  also 
known  as  Child’s  Horticultural  Lima.  We  grew 
the  variety  last  year  from  seeds  obtained  from 
Burpee  and  from  Childs.  The  two  stocks  were 
identical,  and  neither  of  them  gave  the  least  sug¬ 
gestion  of  a  cross  with  the  Lima.  I  have  never 
yet  seen  any  evidence  of  hybridity  between 
Phaseolus  lunatus  and  P.  vulgaris. 

F.  The  Chickasaw  Lima. — 

The  Chickasaw  Lima,  Jack  Bean,  or  Horse 


1 1 4.  Horticultural 
Lima.  Full  size. 


304 


Bulletin  115. 


Bean  (Figs.  115,  116)  is  a  curious  bean  which  I  mention  here 
only  because  it  is  sometimes  called  a  Fima.  It  is  Canavalia  ensi- 
formis ,  a  tropical  species  which  is  widely  cultivated.  It  has  be¬ 
come  generally  distributed  in  the  southern  states  during  the  past 
few  years,  where  it  is  generally  known  as  the  Jack  Bean.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  trace  its  intro¬ 
duction  into  this  couutry,  nor 
have  I  found  any  recent  Amer¬ 
ican  literature  describing  it. 

It  has  probably  come  into  the 
United  States  from  the  West 
Indies  or  Mexico.  Grisebach 
and  others  speak  of  its  cultiva¬ 
tion  in  Jamaica,  and  we  are 
growing  it  from  there  at  the 
present  moment. 

The  Jack  bean  will  probably 
not  ripen  in  the  north.  We 
have  grown  it  under  glass, 
where  it  makes  a  twining  vine 
four  to  eight  feet  high.  In 
warm  countries,  it  is  a  bushy 
plant  with  little  tendency  to 
climb.  The  pods  reach  a 
length  of  ten  to  fourteen 
inches,  the  walls  being  very 
hard  and  dense  when  ripe. 

The  halves  of  the  pod,  when 
split  apart,  roll  up  spirally, 
often  into  an  almost  perfect 
cylinder.  The  large  white 
turgid  beans,  bearing  a  very 

prominent  brown  seed-scar,  are  packed  crosswise  the  pod, 
imbedded  in  a  very  thin  white  paper  lining.  The  flowers  are 
small  and  light-purple,  resembling  those  of  the  Cow-pea  (though 
larger)  and  of  various  species  of  dolichos.  The  leaflets  are  three, 
large  and  broad  (5  to  8  inches  long  and  half  or  three-fifths  as 

broad),  strongly  veined  and  dull  dark  green,  abruptly  pointed 
and  smooth. 


1 15.  The  Chickasaw  Lima  or  Jack  Bean 
(< Canavalia  ensiformis).  One-third,  size. 


The  Pole  Tima  Beans. 


305 


This  Canavalia  seems  to  be  a  rather  coarse  bean  when  fully  ma¬ 
tured,  but  some  of  my  correspondents  commend  its  culinary 
qualities  when  green.  Naudin  and  Muller  in  “  Manuel  de  l’Ac- 
climateur,”  remark  that  “it  is  said  that  the  seeds,  whilst  not 
poisonous,  are  digested  with  difficulty  by  those  persons  which  are 
not  accustomed  to  using  them.  ’  ’ 

Florida,  sends  specimens  for  de¬ 
termination  and  writes:  “The 
bean  makes  a  large  bush  two  and 
a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet 
high  and  broad.  It  stands  all 
kinds  of  weather  except  frost,  and 
blooms  and  bears  unremitting¬ 
ly.  The  beans  are  quite  accep¬ 
table  as  a  ‘  snap  bean,’  when  the 
pods  are  not  more  than  four  or 
six  inches  long.”  Alex.  Raff, 

Orange  Grove,  Mississippi,  who  sent  me  the  seeds  for  a  name  says  : 
“  The  plant  is  a  bush  about  thirty  inches  in  height.  The  blossom 
is  pink,  and  the  seed  pods  average  about  twelve  inches  in  length, 
containing  from  twelve  to  fourteen  beans.  They  were  grown  this 
season  on  poor  piney-wood  sandy  soil,  fertilized  with  a  little  barn¬ 
yard  manure,  and  I  think  would  average  in  yield  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  of  these  large  pods  to  the  plant.  In  quality  for  table 
use,  we  think  it  is  fully  equal  to  the  Lima  bean.”  A.  Jones 
Taylor,  Vernon,  Texas,  sends  the  bean  to  me  under  the  name  of 
Chickasaw  Lima.  It  is  said  to  be  cultivated  by  the  Chickasaw 
Indians.  Professor  Georgeson  describes  and  figures  it  as  one  of 
the  economic  plants  of  Japan  in  “American  Gardening,”  for 
February,  1893. 

Professor  S.  M.  Tracy,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Missis¬ 
sippi,  wrote  me  as  follows  about  this  bean  in  August,  1895  :  “I 
know  very  little  about  Jack  beans.  I  suppose  them  to  be  Can¬ 
avalia  ensiformis.  A  few  Mexicans  who  have  seen  them  say  that 
they  are  common  in  that  country,  where  they  are  used  for  food. 
One  of  my  assistants  saw  them  at  a  county  fair  in  the  southern 
part  of  this  state  five  years  ago,  and  brought  a  couple  of  pods 
home  with  him.  I  grew  them  on  small  plots  three  years,  and  last 


Mr.  John  Dehoff,  Tabor  Lake, 


1 16.  Chickasaw  Lima.  Full  size. 


3°6 


Bulletin  115. 


year  had  about  half  an  acre,  which  yielded  at  the  rate  of  twenty- 
three  bushels  per  acre.  A  neighbor  claims  to  have  had  thirty 
bushels,  which  I  think  is  reasonable,  as  my  crop  of  this  year  ap¬ 
pears  as  though  it  would  be  even  heavier.  I  have  eaten  the 
beans,  and  find  them  quite  edible,  though  rather  coarse.  I  have 
not  fed  them  to  cows,  but  chemical  analysis  shows  them  to  be 
fully  equal  to  other  beans.  We  have  ten  acres  this  year,  and 
propose  to  give  them  a  thorough  test  in  feeding  next  winter.  I 
do  not  know  anyone  who  has  used  them,  or  who  has  grown  them 
in  any  quantity.  ” 

The  result  of  this  last  crop,  Professor  Tracy  now  reports,  this 
month,  as  follows:  “The  Jack  beans  yielded  thirty  to  forty 
bushels  per  acre.  W e  have  used  the  beans  this  winter  in  feeding 
steers,  cows,  and  hogs,  and  I  am  greatly  surprised  to  find  them  of 
almost  no  value.  Cattle  soon  learn  to  eat  the  meal  made  from 
the  beans,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  difficult  of  digestion.  We 
have  used  it  constantly  for  ten  weeks  until  yesterday,  when  I  de¬ 
cided  that  there  was  no  occasion  for  any  further  work.  Next 
week  I  shall  commence  feeding  the  cooked  meal,  and  if  I  get  sat¬ 
isfactory  results  from  that,  shall  try  cooking  some  of  the  beans 
also.” 

I  have  grown  this  Jack  bean  only  as  a  curiosity  and  have  not 
tested  its  culinary  qualities.  It  fruits  freely  under  glass.  I 
report  it  here  because  there  is  considerable  inquiry  concerning  it 
and  because  there  is  no  accessible  literature  of  it. 

II.  Remarks  on  the  Growing  of  Lima  Beans. 

1.  Methods  for  New  York. 

The  Lima  beans  are  amongst  the  most  delicious  of  all  our  gar¬ 
den  vegetables.  There  are  no  beans  grown  in  this  climate  which 
approach  them  in  richness.  They  are  excellent  either  when  used 
green  as  “  shelled  ”  beans,  or  when  used  ripe  and  dry  during  the 
winter  season.  The  merits  of  the  green  or  shelled  Limas  are 
nearly  everywhere  known  and  appreciated,  but  comparatively  few 
people  seem  to  understand  that  the  ripe  beans  are  just  as  excel¬ 
lent  in  the  winter  time  as  the  green  beans  are  in  the  summer.  At 
the  present  time,  the  writer  is  using  the  ripe  Lima  beans  in  the 
same  way  that  the  common  field  beans  are  cooked  for  the  table, 


The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 


307 


and  they  are  the  most  satisfactory  of  any  beans  which  can  be  served. 
These  beans  may  be  shelled  in  the  fall  after  the  pods  are  fully  ripe, 
or  they  may  be  put  away  in  the  attic  or  other  dry  room  in  the  pod 
and  shelled  as  occasion  requires.  If  they  are  stored  in  the  pod, 
the  only  caution  is  that  these  pods  should  be  thoroughly  dried  and 
cured. 

The  Lima  beans  are  natives  of  warm  countries.  The  large  flat 
Limas  are  perennials,  or  at  least  plur-annuals,  in  their  native 
countries.  They  therefore  require  a  long  season,  and  one  who 
expects  to  grow  them  in  the  north  should  endeavor  in  every  way 
to  shorten  the  period  of  growth.  This  may  be  done,  in  the  first 
place,  by  planting  the  earlier  varieties  ;  and,  in  the  second  place, 
by  exercising  great  care  in  the  selection  of  soil  and  in  giving  par¬ 
ticular  attention  to  cultivation.  Light  and  so-called  “quick” 
soils  are  best.  Soils  which  are  naturally  sandy  and  loose,  but 
which  have  been  enriched  in  previous  years  by  the  addition  of 
manure,  are  excellent  for  Lima  beans,  especially  if  they  have  a 
warm  exposure.  The  soil  should  also  be  dry.  Coarse,  raw 
manure  should  be  avoided  on  Lima  beans,  because  it  tends  to 
make  too  rank  and  too  late  growth.  If  any  fertilizer  is  applied 
the  year  in  which  the  beans  are  planted,  it  should  be  such  as 
will  become  available  very  quickly  and  therefore  tend  to  hasten 
the  maturity  of  the  crop.  We  prefer,  therefore,  to  use  some  of 
the  concentrated  fertilizers,  especially  those  which  are  rich 
in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  avoid  those  which  contain 
very  much  nitrogen.  If  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  used  at  all, 
they  should  be  applied  in  comparatively  small  amount  and  be  of 
such  kind  that  they  will  give  up  their  fertility  early  in  the  season. 
If  ordinary  stable  manure  is  used,  it  should  be  applied  in  the  fall 
in  order  that  it  may  become  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the 
soil  and  be  ready  for  use  at  the  earliest  moment  in  the  spring. 

We  had  an  excellent  chance  last  year  to  study  the  effects  of  moist 
soil  upon  Lima  beans.  Our  experimental  plantation  ran  through 
a  low  place  on  to  a  dry,  sandy  elevation.  The  soil  was  the  same 
formation  throughout  the  plantation,  but  in  the  sag  it  had  become 
somewhat  enriched  by  the  washings  from  the  higher  lands.  This 
sag  was  so  dry  and  so  well  drained  that  it  never  held  water,  and 
the  season  was  characterized  by  a  prolonged  drought  ;  yet,  in 


3°8 


'Bulletin  115. 


spite  of  these  facts,  the  beans  in  this  sag  were  at  least  three  or  four 
weeks  later  than  those  upon  the  dryer  end  of  the  plantation,  and 
some  varieties  did  not  ripen  a  single  pod  in  this  spot.  It  should  be 
said,  however,  that  the  soil  throughout  this  plantation  was  very 
thoroughly  tilled  all  during  the  season  so  that  the  moisture  upon 
the  high  land  was  conserved  to  the  greatest  possible  extent.  Lima 
beans  delight  in  hot,  dry  weather,  if  only  they  have  an  opportunity 
of  getting  their  roots  deeply  into  the  soil  before  dry  weather  comes 
on,  and  if  they  are  given  frequent  shallow  tillage  for  a  time. 

Whilst  it  is  essential  that  the  Lima  beans  should  be  given  the 
longest  season  possible,  it  is  nevertheless  futile  to  plant  them  be¬ 
fore  the  weather  is  thoroughly  settled  ;  for,  even  though  the  seeds 
may  germinate,  the  young  plants  will  be  seriously  checked  by 
inclement  weather.  We  prefer  to  plant  them  a  week  or  ten  days 
after  it  is  safe  to  plant  the  ordinary  bush  garden  beans.  We  have 
our  ground  very  thoroughly  prepared,  plant  them  about  an  inch 
deep  in  about  twice  the  quantity  which  we  desire  to  have  them 
stand,  and  then  expect  to  keep  them  growing  rapidly  until  they 
have  reached  the  tops  of  the  stakes  or  trellis.  If  we  use  stakes, 
we  plant  the  beans  in  hills  about  three  feet  apart  and  the  rows 
about  four  feet  apart,  dropping  seven  or  eight  beans  in  each  hill. 
When  the  beans  are  well  up,  and  danger  from  bad  weather  and 
cut- worms  is  past,  we  pull  out  all  but  three  or  four.  The  poles 
should  not  be  more  than  six  feet  high.  If  they  are  taller  than 
this,  they  are  not  only  expensive  to  procure  and  hard  to  keep  in 
place,  but  the  beans  will  run  too  high  and  grow  too  late.  When 
the  beans  reach  the  tops  of  poles  which  are  five  or  six  feet  high, 
the  ends  of  the  vines  swing  out  horizontally  and  the  growth  is 
checked,  and  the  setting  of  fruit  is  thereby,  no  doubt,  hastened. 
It  is  the  practice  of  many  persons  to  clip  back  the  ends  of  the 
vines  when  they  have  reached  a  certain  height.  For  myself,  I 
doubt  the  efficiency,  or  at  least  the  necessity,  for  this  practice. 
It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  better  to  prevent  too  rapid  growth  by 
withholding  the  strong  fertilizers  and  then  by  the  use  of  compar¬ 
atively  short  poles.  Some  persons  prefer  to  grow  the  beans  upon 
a  trellis,  and  this  is  the  most  economical  of  room.  In  this  way 
the  beans  can  be  planted  more  or  less  continuously,  so  that  the 
vines  will  eventually  stand  about  a  foot  apart.  The  trellis  can  be 


The  Poee  Lima  Beans. 


309 


made  very  cheaply  by  placing  a  very  strong  braced  post  at  each 
end  of  the  row  and  then  running  a  strand  of  fence  wire  from  one 
post  to  the  other  about  eight  or  nine  inches  above  the  ground, 
and  another  strand  about  five  feet  above  the  ground.  These  wires 
can  be  kept  from  slacking  by  placing  stakes  at  intervals  of  ten  or 
fifteen  feet.  Ordinary  wool  twine  is  then  run  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  wire  and  thence  to  the  bottom  wire  again,  and  so  on,  in  a 
zigzag  fashion,  throughout  the  length  of  the  row,  placing  it  in 
such  manner  that  the  strands  of  string  will  be  no  more  than  a  foot 
or  fifteen  inches  apart.  This  makes  a  very  cheap  and  serviceable 
trellis  and  is,  no  doubt,  better  than  stakes. 

Our  Lima  beans  were  planted  in  1895  on  the  3Ist  day  of  May. 
They  might  have  been  planted  a  few  days  earlier,  no  doubt,  with 
perfect  safety.  If  one  desires  to  get  his  beans  ahead  very  early, 
he  can  plant  them  in  a  forcing-house  or  cold-frame  in  pots  or  on 
inverted  sods,  or  in  refuse  berry  boxes,  about  two  weeks  in  ad¬ 
vance  of  the  time  they  are  to  be  set  out  of  doors.  From  these 
receptacles  they  can  be  transferred  easily  to  the  ground.  One  of 
our  constituents  says  that  he  always  greases  his  Lima  beans 
thoroughly  with  lard  when  he  plants  them  and  is  thereby  able  to 
plant  his  crop  a  week  or  ten  days  ahead  of  the  usual  time,  because 
the  grease  preserves  the  beans  from  rotting.  We  have  not  tried 
this  method  and  do  not  know  what  value  it  has.  It  is  an  easy 
matter  to  transplant  Lima  beans,  even  when  they  are  not  grown 
in  pots  or  boxes,  if  the  ground  is  moist  when  they  are  taken  up  so 
that  a  large  lump  of  earth  adheres  to  the  roots  and  if  the  weather 
is  somewhat  humid  following  the  transfer.  But,  in  spite  of  all 
that  can  be  done,  nearly  every  variety  of  the  large  Lima  beans 
will  fail  to  mature  its  full  crop  in  the  north  before  frost.  If  half 
the  pods  which  the  vines  have  set  should  mature  before  frost 
comes,  the  grower  may  feel  that  he  has  been  very  successful. 
The  green  pods  which  remain  at  frost  time,  if  the  beans  are  par¬ 
tially  grown,  can  be  picked,  the  beans  shelled  out  and  dried,  and 
these  can  be  used  in  the  winter  time  to  as  good  advantage  as  if 
they  were  thoroughly  ripe.  If  these  dried  beans  are  soaked  in 
water  for  some  time  before  they  are  cooked,  they  are  scarcely  in¬ 
ferior  to  green  beans  directly  from  the  vine. 


Bulletin  115. 


310 

It  is  generally  considered  that  the  richest  of  all  the  Lima  beans 
are  those  of  the  Potato  Lima  type,  like  Dreer’s  Improved  and 
Challenge.  This  type  of  beans  makes  a  smaller  and  less  showy 
pod  than  many  of  the  large  white  Lima  type,  but  the  pods  are 
usually  closer  packed  with  turgid  seeds.  To  the  person  who  buys 
Lima  beans  in  the  pod,  these  are  much  the  more  economical, 
whilst  the  one  who  sells  beans  in  the  pod  would  secure  a  larger 
bulk  by  growing  some  of  the  very  large-podded  flat  Lima  type, 
like  Kaighn,  Jersey,  May  Champion,  and  the  like.  For  ripe 
beans,  the  large  white  flat  Limas  usually  sell  the  best,  but  there 
are  many  persons  who  prefer  a  green  Lima.  A  number  of  the 
varieties  are  greenish  even  when  they  are  fully  ripe,  and  therefore 
have  the  appearance  of  being  more  fresh  and  tender.  The  red  and 
speckled  Limas  are  in  every  way  as  good  in  quality  as  the  white 
or  green  ones,  but  most  persons  do  not  like  this  dark  color.  In 
our  own  test  of  last  year,  we  thought  that  the  best  six  beans,  con¬ 
sidering  earliness,  productiveness  and  quality,  were  the  Jersey, 
Extra  Early  or  Bliss,  Kaighn,  May  Champion,  Dreer  Improved 
and  the  speckled  Lima. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  what  the  yield  of  Lima  beans  may  be.  As 
a  rule  they  are  not  grown  much  for  market  in  the  dry  state  in  the 
east,  for  the  California  product  can  be  grown  with  more  certainty 
and  more  cheaply  and  is  shipped  east  in  very  large  quantities.  Mr. 
C.  J.  Pennock,  of  Kennett  Square,  Pa. ,  one  of  our  former  students, 
writes  that  upon  a  half  acre  he  gets  a  yield  of  about  120  ^-bu.  bas¬ 
kets  of  pods,  and  the  price  runs  about  fifty  cents  per  basket.  He 
uses  poles  seven  feet  long,  stuck  three  and  one-half  by  four  and 
one-half  feet  apart,  and  he  cultivates  twice  before  setting  the  poles, 
hoes  the  beans  about  once,  and  trains  the  vines  to  the  poles  by  hand. 

2.  The  California  Practice. 

In  the  East,  the  Lima  bean  is  much  grown  in  New  Jersey,  but 
southern  California  is  undoubtedly  the  largest  producer  of  Lima 
beans  in  the  world.  The  following  estimates  show  the  enormous 
output  of  Lima  beans  from  this  region  : 

Ventura  County.  Santa  Barbara  County. 

1893  i  ,500  car  loads.  250  car  loads. 

1895  1,100  “  “  120  “  “ 

A  carload  is  about  ten  tons. 


The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 


31 1 

It  is  a  question  if  Lima  bean  seed  which  is  grown  continuously  in 
the  long  seasons  of  California  is  as  reliable  for  our  short  seasons 
as  home  grown  seed  is.  For  myself,  if  I  were  expecting  to  grow 
Limas  for  market  in  central  New  York,  I  should  prefer  to  select 
and  grow  my  own  seed  or  else  be  sure,  if  it  were  Californian  grown, 
that  the  ‘  ‘  stock  ’  ’  were  annually  grown  in  my  own  geographical 
region. 

A  most  instructive  account  of  the  interesting  Lima  bean  industry 
of  southern  California  was  printed  in  the  “American  Florist,’  ’ 
for  December  28,  1895,  written  by  L.  B.  Hogue,  Santa  Paula, 
California.  J.  C.  Vaughan,  of  Chicago,  who  has  given  consider¬ 
able  attention  to  this  western  bean  interest,  writes  me  commending 
the  article.  In  order  to  complete  the  contemporaneous  history  of 
the  Lima  bean  as  well  as  to  instruct  our  own  people  in  some  of 
the  essentials  of  the  cultivation  of  these  plants,  I  append  the  larger 
part  of  the  article: 

“  More  than  twenty  years  ago  a  farmer  in  the  Carpenteria  valley 
experimented  with  the  Lima  bean.  None  of  them  had  been  grown 
on  this  coast  for  market  at  that  time.  The  experiment  proved  a 
perfect  success.  Every  requisite  for  producing  this  variety  in  its 
perfection  seemed  to  be  supplied  here.  A  remunerative  price  was 
readily  obtained  for  the  mature  bean.  From  this  time  others 
began  to  grow  them.  The  demand  grew  with  the  increase  of  the 
product.  The  profits  became  much  greater  than  were  those  of 
any  other  farm  crop,  which  proved  a  great  stimulus  to  improved 
methods.  Something  like  exact  science  was  finally  reached  in 
the  matter  of  the  preparations  and  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The 
primitive  way  of  harvesting  by  hand,  where  one  man  could  cut 
one  acre  per  day  by  hard  work,  was  superseded  by  a  simple  horse 
power  device,  with  which  one  man  could  cut  fifteen  acres  per  day. 
Also  implements  were  invented  for  cultivating  the  land  before 
planting,  which  facilitated  the  work  in  like  manner.  To  the 
credit  of  these  farmers  let  it  be  said  that  the  machinery  for  the 
successful  cultivation  and  harvesting  of  this  crop  was  invented  by 
them. 

“  As  a  matter  of  course  the  success  of  the  industry  in  the 
Carpenteria  soon  attracted  wide  attention,  and  farmers  in  other 
parts  of  the  state  began  to  make  trials  to  grow  the  Lima  bean. 
Their  efforts,  though,  proved  to  be  failures.  Our  section,  how- 


312 


Bulletin  115. 


ever,  that  of  the  Santa  Clara  valley  of  the  south,  in  Ventura 
county,  and  only  about  twenty  miles  from  the  Carpenteria,  would 
seem  to  possess  nearly  all  the  requirements  in  soil  and  climate. 
But  some  way  the  business  did  not  ‘  pan  out  ’  right  as  the 
‘  forty-niner  ’  would  say.  The  Carpenteria  farmers  had  their 
eyes  on  the  operations  in  Ventura  county,  however.  They  notic¬ 
ed  that  their  own  farms  were  usually  from  ten  to  twenty  acres, 
while  the  Ventura  farms  averaged  at  that  time  about  one  thousand 
acres  to  each  farmer.  They  noticed  also  that  the  farming  was 
done  in  a  slipshod  out-of-season  fashion  that  would  not  succeed 
even  in  their  own.  section.  Finally  some  of  them  rented  small 
tracts  of  land  in  the  Santa  Clara  valley  and  instituted  their  methods 
of  farming.  When  lo  !  Dame  Nature  smiled  upon  them.  Ye 
rancher  on  a  thousand  acres  came  around  to  see  how  it  had  hap¬ 
pened  that  the  despised  ‘  small  farming  ’  had  resulted  in  as  much 
clear  gain  from  a  few  acres  as  he  had  received  from  his  thousand. 
Other  practical  bean  growers  settled  in  the  valley  and  the  ship¬ 
ments  of  Limas  from  southern  California  doubled,  trebled,  and 
quadrupled — when  finally  improved  facilities  had  rendered  large 
farming  practicable.  However,  the  average  yield  per  acre,  about 
one  ton,  continues  larger  in  the  Carpenteria  valley  than  in  most 
other  places.  Although  numerous  attempts  are  made  to  grow 
the  Lima  bean  in  other  sections  of  the  state  the  fact  remains  that 
nearly  all  of  this  variety  shipped  from  California  came  from  the 
extreme  southern  part  of  Santa  Barbara  county,  and  from  the 
valley  of  Ventura  county  lying  near  the  coast.  The  little  valley 
of  the  Carpenteria  sends  out  about  one  hundred  car  loads,  and 
those  of  Ventura  about  twelve  hundred  car  loads  annually. 
(Estimate  of  10  tons  each). 

“The  methods  adopted  here  in  growing  and  harvesting  the 
Lima  bean  could  not  be  pursued  in  countries  where  rain  falls  dur¬ 
ing  the  summer  season.  The  cultivation  proper  is  all  done  during 
the  winter  and  spring  and  before  the  beans  are  planted.  The 
cultivation  is  very  thorough  and  by  the  best  of  implements. 

“After  all  danger  of  rain  is  passed  in  the  spring,  say  from  the  1st 
to  20th  of  May,  the  seed  is  put  into  the  ground  in  rows  about  forty 
inches  apart  and  from  six  to  fourteen  inches  in  the  row  with 
machines  which  plant  from  two  to  four  rows  at  a  time.  After  the 


The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 


3i3 

crop  is  well  up  and  growing,  some  weeds  will  have  started  too. 
These  are  destroyed  by  using  a  horsepower  weed  knife,  which 
passes  just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  killing  the  weeds  in 
one  or  two  rows  at  a  time  without  disturbing  the  soil,  which  is  by 
this  time  perfectly  dry  on  top.  As  the  season  advances  the  plants 
send  out  their  vines  over  the  dry  surface,  until  the  ground  is 
finally  hidden  from  sight,  and  thus,  all  through  the  latter  part  of 
our  rainless  summers,  thousands  of  acres  may  be  seen  covered 
with  beautiful  light  green  foliage. 

“  In  the  latter  part  of  September  the  beans  are  all  cut  loose 
from  the  ground  a  little  below  the  surface  and  are  forked  into  piles 
convenient  for  pitching  onto  wagons.  They  are  then  allowed  to 
dry  in  the  sun  for  about  two  weeks  before  threshing.  Formerly 
all  threshing  was  done  in  the  following  manner:  A  round  space 
on  the  ground  sixty  to  eighty  feet  is  made  quite  wet,  then  it  is 
wagoned  over,  packed  and  smoothed  down  and  allowed  to  dry 
hard.  Two  or  three  big  wagon  loads  are  placed  in  a  ring  on  this 
floor  during  very  dry  clear  weather.  Formerly  horses  attached 
to  light  wagons  were  driven  over  the  beans  (usually  two  or  three 
teams  at  a  time),  till  they  were  all  shelled  from  the  pods.  The 
vines  are  then  thrown  off  and  more  beans  from  the  field  placed  on. 
This  process  is  continued  until  there  are  many  tons  of  beans  on 
the  floor  under  those  that  are  being  threshed  out.  After  this  the 
whole  mass  of  chaff  and  beans  is  run  through  winnowing  and 
screening  machines  and  the  beans  placed  in  sacks  of  seventy-five 
to  eighty  pounds  each  and  are  ready  for  market.  Of  late  years 
the  teams  on  the  floor  are  attached  to  disc  machines  instead  of 
wagons,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  work. 

“  The  process  of  threshing  by  large  steam  machines  which  clean 
up  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  acres  of  beans  per  day,  has  more  re¬ 
cently  been  adopted  by  most  of  the  large  growers.  It  is  a  singular 
fact,  however,  that  while  the  expense  to  the  farmer  who  employs 
the  steam  thresher  is  usually  five  dollars  per  ton,  the  work  is  done 
by  the  first  named  method  at  about  four  dollars  per  ton.  The 
machine  threshed  beans  also  have  to  be  recleaned  before  they  are 
marketed,  and  are  broken  so  much  that  they  are  never  fit  for  the 
seed  trade.  Yet  there  is  one  great  advantage  with  the  steam 
thresher.  The  rainy  season,  so  called,  is  approaching  and  a 


314 


Bulletin  115. 


shower  is  liable  to  fall  in  October  while  the  threshing  process  is  in 
full  blast,  so  that  any  beans  that  are  caught  on  the  floors  are  ruined 
if  they  do  not  manage  to  cover  them  in  some  way,  while  by 
the  machine  process  all  beans  are  sacked  as  they  are  threshed. 

“  Nineteen  years  ago  an  eastern  seed  firm  having  learned  of  the 
successful  culture  of  the  Lima  bean  in  this  section,  made  arrange¬ 
ments  to  have  a  small  lot  grown,  to  be  used  in  his  business.  The 
project  proved  to  be  a  feasible  one.  Other  wholesale  seedsmen 
gradually  came  into  this  field  and  made  contracts  for  seed.  Some 
of  them  were  at  first  unfortunate  in  dealing  with  careless  farmers, 
the  business  proving  unsatisfactory.  The  demand  upon  careful 
seed  growers,  however,  increased  until  they  virtually  held  a 
monopoly  of  that  branch  of  the  seed  business  in  the  United  States, 
the  writer  having  had  contracts  with  eastern  seed  houses  amount¬ 
ing  to  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons  in  a  single  year.  Within 
the  past  two  or  three  years  the  extensive  wholesale  dealers  in 
beans  for  all  purposes  have  been  securing  the  contracts  of  seed 
houses  and  farming  then  out  to  whoever  would  grow  them  for  the 
lowest  price,  with  the  result  that  an  inferior  grade  for  less  money 
is  now  being  supplied,  while  the  careful  and  successful  seed 
growers  have  mostly  gone  out  of  the  business  into  other  horticul¬ 
tural  pursuits  which  promise  better  returns  for  their  skill. 

‘  ‘  For  the  benefit  of  some  readers  it  might  be  well  to  state  even 
at  this  late  date  in  the  history  of  agriculture  in  California  that 
these  crops  are  grown  without  irrigation  and  without  any  rain 
from  the  time  the  seed  is  planted  till  the  beans  are  harvested,  un¬ 
less  it  be  that  an  unwelcome  shower  is  liable  to  come  in  the  har¬ 
vesting  season  in  the  month  of  October.  ’  ’ 

III.  Index. 

For  the  choice  of  varieties  in  our  last  year’s  test,  see  page  312. 
The  Sievas  are  described  on  pages  294  to  296  ;  the  large  flat 
Limas  on  pages  296  to  300  ;  the  potato  Limas  on  pages  300  to 
302  ;  the  horticultural  Lima  on  page  303  ;  the  Chickasaw  Lima 
or  Jack  bean  ( Ca?iavalia  ensiformis )  on  pages  303  to  306.  The 
methods  of  culture  recommended  for  New  York  are  detailed  on 
pages  306  (uses),  307  (soils  and  fertilizers),  308,  309  (planting 
and  training),  310  (choice  of  varieties).  The  Californian  operations 
are  expounded  on  pages  310  to  314. 

L-  H.  Bailey. 


I 


Bulletin  116.  Hay,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


DWARF  APPLES. 


By  E.  G.  LODEMAN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 


Hon.  A.  D.  White, 
Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  G.  C,  Caldwell, 
Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss, 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock,  • 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing, 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ------  Director. 

E.  L.  Williams,  ------  Treasurer. 

E-  A.  Butler,  -  Clerk. 


ASSISTANTS 


M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  - 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  May  n,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir : — The  interest  in  dwarf  pears  continues  to  be  unabated  in 
this  state,  and  one  of  the  questions  which  conies  to  us  very  fre¬ 
quently  is  a  request  for  information  as  to  why  dwarf  apples  may 
not  also  be  a  source  of  profit.  Unfortunately,  we  are  unable  to 
answer  these  questions  from  any  American  experience,  for  dwarf 
apples  have  been  grown  in  this  country  chiefly  as  single  or  speci¬ 
men  trees  and  not  in  plantations  of  commercial  extent ;  and  even 
as  specimen  trees,  they  are  comparatively  little  known.  Yet  the 
inquiry  concerning  them  is  so  great  that  we  have  thought  it  wise 
to  collect  and  publish  as  much  as  possible  of  the  scattered  exper¬ 
iences  of  New  York  people.  The  Experiment  Station  Extension 
Eaw,  under  the  auspices  of  which  this  bulletin  is  published,  has 
for  one  of  its  leading  objects,  as  we  interpret  it,  the  collection  and 
publication  of  the  very  valuable  experiences  of  horticulturists  in 
the  Fifth  Judicial  Department  of  the  state,  which  experiences  are 
commonly  lost  to  the  public,  but  which  are  intrinsically  as  valua¬ 
ble  as  similar  work  which  may  be  taken  up  by  the  Station.  In  fact, 
they  may  be  more  valuable.  The  Eaw  is  designed  to  promote  the 
spread  of  information  amongst  the  horticulturists  of  its  territory. 
Its  motive  is  distinctly  educational.  We  have  therefore  no  hesi¬ 
tation  in  presenting  this  average  of  experiences  as  a  bulletin, 
even  though  it  is  not  all  founded  upon  experiments  actually  made  at 
the  Station  at  Ithaca.  To  wait  for  the  maturing  of  experiments 
would  mean  the  delay  of  publication  and  a  refusal  to  satisfy  in¬ 
quiry  for  several  years  to  come.  The  reader  must  bear  in  mind, 
however,  that  we  make  no  recommendation  respecting  the  setting 
of  dwarf  apples  for  commercial  purposes.  We  have  simply  given 
the  gist  of  what  evidence  we  have  been  able  to  collect  in  a  two 
years’  inquiry,  and  the  reader  must  draw  his  own  conclusions. 
The  present  writer  has  been  more  or  less  familiar  with  dwarf  ap¬ 
ples  for  twenty  years,  and  has  known  some  good  commercial 
results  to  be  obtained  ;  but  he  is  of  the  opinion  that  if  dwarf  ap¬ 
ples  are  to  be  planted  at  all  for  market  they  should  comprise  only 
those  varieties  which  are  suitable  for  a  very  fancy  or  dessert  trade. 

The  bulletin  is  submitted  for  publication  under  Chapter  230,  of 
the  laws  of  1895.  E.  H.  Bailey. 


Opinions  of  Dwarf  Apples  by  American  Writers. 


Patrick  Barry  :  “The  apple,  worked  on  the  Paradise,  makes  a  beautiful 
little  dwarf  bush.  We  know  of  nothing  more  interesting  in  the  fruit  garden 
than  a  row  or  a  little  square  of  these  miniature  apple  trees,  either  in  blossom 
or  in  fruit.  Those  who  have  not  seen  them  may  imagine  an  apple  tree  four 
feet  high  and  the  same  in  width  of  branches,  covered  with  blossoms  in  the 
spring  or  loaded  with  magnificent  golden  and  crimson  fruit  in  the  autumn. 
They  begin  to  bear  the  third  year  from  the  bud,  and  the  same  variety  is  always 
larger  and  finer  on  them  than  on  standards.’' — Fruit  Garden ,  New  Edition , 
1883. 

IV.  C.  Strong :  Dwarf  apples  are  “  well  adapted  for  garden  culture,  giv¬ 
ing  the  advantage  of  early  fruitfulness,  an  increase  in  the  number  of  small 
trees,  and  consequently  in  the  number  of  varieties,  when  this  is  desired  . 

.  .  .  .  Constant  watchfulness  will  be  required  in  the  culture  of  dwarfs 

to  give  annual  supplies  of  food,  to  preserve  the  form  by  pruning,  and  also 
to  prevent  rooting  above  the  dwarf  stock  and  thus  destroying  its  character.” 
— Fruit  Culture,  1883. 

John  A.  Warder :  “Such are  very  appropriate  for  the  small  garden,  or  for 
the  specimen  grounds  of  a  nursery  establishment,  and  they  sometimes  make 
beautiful  objects  on  the  lawn  or  among  the  shrubbery,  but  they  are  wholly 
unsuited  for  orchard  planting.” — Apples ,  i86j. 

John  J.  Thomas  :  “  For  summer  and  autumn  sorts,  dwarf  apples  are  val¬ 
uable  in  affording  a  supply  to  families.  They  begin  to  bear  in  two  or  three 
years  from  setting  out,  and  at  five  or  six  years,  if  well  cultivated,  will  afford 
a  bushel  or  so  to  each  tree.  A  portion  of  a  garden  as  large  as  the  tenth  of  an 
acre,  may  be  planted  with  forty  or  fifty  trees,  without  crowding.  All  the 
different  varieties  of  the  apple  may  be  made  dwarfs  by  working  on  the 
Paradise  or  Doucin  stock — the  former  are  smaller  and  bear  soonest ;  the  lat- 

1 

ler  are  larger  and  ultimately  afford  the  heaviest  crops.  Among  the  hand¬ 
somest  growers  as  dwarfs,  are  Red  Astrachan,  Jersey  Sweet,  Porter,  Baldwin, 
Dyer,  Summer  Rose,  Benoni,  and  Bough.” — The  American  Fruit  Culturist , 
Revised  Edition ,  1883. 

George  Jaques :  “No  one,  we  suppose,  will  attempt  to  cultivate  these 
little  trees  in  this  country,  excepting  for  ornamental  purposes.  They  are 
very  pretty  garden  pets  in  the  midst  of  a  flower-bed,  or  at  the  corners  of 
alleys,  or  elsewhere  where  fancy  may  locate  them.  They  seldom  bear  more 
than  a  dozen  or  twenty  apples,  and  therefore  the  economical  orchardist, 
looking  to  profit  alone,  ought  not  to  consider  them  as  worthy  of  his  atten¬ 
tion . There  is  nothing  very  peculiar  in  the  management  of 

the  dwarf  apple.  Its  place  is  the  garden ,  not  the  field  ;  still  less  will  it 
answer  to  put  these  little  trees  in  grass-ground,  or  to  subject  them  to  rough 
usage.” — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  Fruit  Trees.  Wor¬ 
cester,  Mass.,  1849. 


DWARF  APPLES. 


I.  Dwarfing  in  General. 

Effect  of  checking  the  movemeiit  of  sap. — All  fruit  trees  are 
provided  with  certain  well-defined  courses  through  which  the  sap 
passes  to  every  part  of  the  plant.  After  the  roots,  have  taken  in 
the  water  with  its  freight  of  dissolved  plant  food,  the  crude  sap, 
as  it  may  then  be  termed,  enters  a  definite  course  which  eventually 
brings  the  nourishment  to  the  parts  in  which  the  materials  are 
used  for  constructing  plant  tissue.  There  is  no  circulation  of  sap 
in  plants  in  the  sense  in  which  there  is  in  animals,  no  definite 
tubes  through  which  it  flows.  It  passes  through  the  plant  tissues 
by  a  process  of  absorption.  The  regions  in  which  this  transfer 
takes  place  will  become  apparent  upon  consideration  of  a  few 
common  facts. 

Let  us  suppose  a  very  common  case.  Labels  are  frequently 
secured  by  means  of  a  wire  which  surrounds  either  a  branch  or 
the  trunk  of  the  tree.  It  is  no  unusual  occurrence  that  such 
labels  are  neglected,  and  as  the  stem  increases  in  size,  the  wire 
becomes  imbedded  in  the  bark.  This  forms  a  constriction  about 
the  stem,  and  the  connection  between  the  parts  above  and  below 
the  wire  is  more  or  less  effectually  destroyed,  especially  in  the 
outer  portions.  As  the  wire  becomes  more  deeply  buried,  an  un¬ 
equal  growth  takes  place  in  the  adjoining  tissue.  The  stem  im¬ 
mediately  above  the  wire  becomes  abnormally  enlarged,  while  the 
rate  of  growth  below  is  greatly  lessened  or  almost  entirely  check¬ 
ed.  If  the  wire  is  not  removed,  union  of  the  tissues  separated  by 
the  wire  may  take  place,  and  the  tree  will  be  little  the  worse  for 
the  check.  More  frequently,  however,  young  trees  are  so  severe¬ 
ly  cut  that  the  increased  weight  of  the  top  forces  the  stem  to  break 
where  it  is  surrounded  by  the  wire,  causing  a  total  loss  of  this 
portion. 

Another  familiar  example  may  be  named.  When  the  trunk  of 
a  plant  has  been  entirely  girdled,  as  frequently  occurs  with  orch¬ 
ard  trees,  and  as  is  sometimes  purposely  done  with  grape-vines  when 


320 


BULIyKTIN  1 1 6. 


particularly  large  fruit  is  desired,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
plant  makes  little  attempt  to  cover  the  wound  from  below,  but  the 
healing  takes  place  from  above.  At  the  same  time  the 
foliage  does  not  wilt  as  if  suffering  from  water,  unless  the  cut  has 
been  made  very  deep,  but  it  frequently  remains  green  and  appar¬ 
ently  healthy  for  a  long  time. 

The  above  facts  lead  to  but  one  conclusion  :  the  sap  upon  en¬ 
tering  the  plant  rises  through  the  inner  tissues  to  the  extremities  of 
the  branches,  or  to  the  leaves  ;  from  here  it  descends,  choosing  for 
its  path,  however,  the  tissues  which  lie  between  the  outer  bark 
and  the  wood.  The  part  through  which  the  sap  rises  is  well 
known  under  the  name  sap-wood.  In  many  plants  this  wood  is 
very  conspicuous  in  sections  of  the  stem  an  account  of  its  light 
color.  The  sap  descends  through  what  for  convenience  may  be 
loosely  termed  the  inner  bark,  which  consists  of  the  soft  tissues 
that  lie  directly  underneath  the  hard,  corky  covering  of  the  stem. 

Endogenous  plants,  such  as  the  palm,  corn,  and  others,  do  not 
have  these  tissues  separated  from  each  other  as  above  described. 
The  tissues  which  correspond  to  the  sap-wood  and  to  the  inner 
bark  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  long,  slender,  thread-like  bun¬ 
dles  which  are  readily  distinguished  as  coarse  fibers,  thinly  scat¬ 
tered  in  the  pith  as  seen  in  corn  stalks,  and  more  thickly  at  the 
edges  of  the  stems.  The  sap  rises  and  descends  in  each  of  these 
many  bundles  of  fibre,  so  that  the  girdling  of  this  classs  of  plants 
is  not  followed  by  such  abnormal  growths  as  occur  on  our  fruit 
trees  ;  the  primary  result  of  such  injury  is  that  the  amount  of  sap 
which  reaches  the  foliage  is  reduced  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  these  fibers  which  are  cut. 

The  reason  why  the  sap  passes  directly  to  the  foliage  before  it 
returns  to  the  growing  parts  of  the  plant  is  obvious  ;  in  the  tissues 
of  the  leaves  the  crude  sap  is  acted  upon  by  various  agents,  with 
the  result  that  the  nourishment  which  was  carried  to  the  leaves  is 
made  available  for  use  by  growing  cells.  The  process  of  chang¬ 
ing  the  unavailable  food  to  that  which  is  of  use  to  the  plant  is 
known  as  assimilation  ;  the  green  portions  of  the  plant  are  the 
only  parts  in  which  this  change  can  take  place,  and  it  can  pro¬ 
ceed  only  in  the  presence  of  light.  The  leaves  may  therefore  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  nourish- 


Dwarf  Apples. 


321 

ment  of  plants.  An  injury  to  them  is  not  merely  a  local  matter, 
but  it  effects  the  entire  plant  economy. 

After  the  sap  has  been  elaborated  by  the  foliage,  it  is  in  proper 
condition  for  nourishing  any  of  the  growing  cells  of  the  plant.  It 
passes  to  the  growing  tips  and  there  assists  in  lengthening  the 
shoots,  in  forming  new  leaves,  and  in  producing  buds — some  of 
which  may  be  fruit-buds — which  remain  dormant  until  the  follow¬ 
ing  year.  It  passes  to  the  main  branches  and  the  trunks  of  the 
plant,  and  supplies  the  cells  which  are  forming  wood  and  those 
which  are  forming  the  tissues  of  the  inner  bark  with  the  materials 
necessary  to  their  support  and  growth.  It  passes  down  into  the 
root  system  of  the  plant  and  furnishes  the  roots  with  the  food 
required  for  their  proper  growth  ;  but  if  an  insufficient  amount  of 
food  is  present  the  roots  are  the  first  to  suffer,  for  it  seems  that  only 
the  part  which  is  not  needed  by  the  parts  above  ground  is  allowed 
to  go  as  far  as  it  may  towards  the  nourishment  of  the  roots. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  consider  the  effect  upon  a  plant  of  any 
injury  or  other  abnormal  modification.  When  a  plant  is  girdled, 
the  nourshing  sap  is  prevented  from  returning  to  the  roots ;  these 
must  suffer  and  eventually  die.  But  when  only  a  part  of  the  top 
of  a  plant  is  girdled,  the  roots  need  not  necessarily  be  deprived  of 
their  proper  amount  of  food,  since  the  remaining  branches  may 
perform  their  duty  without  the  aid  of  the  girdled  portion.  This 
part,  however,  may  show  very  marked  effects  of  the  treatment. 
The  sap  is  allowed  to  enter  the  branch  freely  ;  but  when  it  is 
returning  from  the  foliage  it  cannot  pass  the  point  of  injury  and 
we  therefore  find  the  abnormal  growth  of  tissue  which  so  com¬ 
monly  results  from  such  mutilation.  Yet  all  the  food  is  not 
deposited  at  the  girdle.  Girdled  branches  are  frequently  the 
most  fruitful  ones  ;  in  fact  they  may  be  the  only  ones  upon  a  tree 
which  produce  fruit.  The  branch  may  be  said  to  be  congested 
with  food,  and  relief  from  this  condition  is  sought  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  fruit. 

Girdling  may  have  other  effects  than  to  promote  fruitfulness. 
Grapes  are  girdled  not  in  order  to  make  them  more  fruitful,  but 
that  the  fruit  may  be  larger,  and  that  it  shall  mature  a  little  earlier. 
These  are  results  which  naturally  follow  from  the  abundance  of 
the  food  supply. 


322 


Bulletin  ii6. 


The  girdling  of  trees  has  been  considered  in  connection  with 
dwarfing  because  the  two  subjects  appear  to  be  closely  con¬ 
nected.  The  results  of  checking  the  flow  of  sap  are  very  pro¬ 
nounced  in  girdled  trees.'  Figure  117  represents  a  union  of  a 


Fallawater  apple  upon 
The  stock  was  budded 
an  enormous  swelling 


the  dwarf  Paradise  stock, 
about  22  years  ago,  and 
has  been  formed  at 


1 17. — Union  of  Fallawater  apple  upon  Paradise  stock.  The  swelling ,  in 
which  the  knife  is  placed ,  is  of  the  cion.  The  earth  is  removed 
in  order  to  show  the  malformation. 

the  point  of  union.  The  slow  growth  of  the  stock,  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  cion,  prevents  the  free  passage  of  sap 
from  the  foliage  to  the  roots.  The  stock  in  such  cases  may 
be  said  to  form  an  obstruction  to  the  descending  sap,  much  as  the 
wire  does  upon  improperly  labeled  trees.  If  in  spite  of  such  an 
obstacle,  the  roots  receive  all  the  prepared  sap  which  they  require, 
the  tree  should  prove  to  be  very  fruitful. 

Dwarfing  a  tree  is  done  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  growing 
a  certain  variety  of  fruit  upon  a  slow-growing  stock  so  that  the 
top  may  never  attain  its  normal  size.  Other  things  being  equal, 
this  dwarfing  need  not  necessarily  cause  it  to  be  more  precocious 
or  more  fruitful.  Yet  dwarf  trees  do,  as  a  rule,  bear  earlier  than 
standards  ;  this  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  apples.  Fruitful¬ 
ness  depends  largely  upon  a  proper  food  supply.  The  reason 
that  a  tree  bears  earlier  when  it  is  dwarfed  may  probably  be 


Dwarf  Appres. 


323 


ascribed  to  the  fact  that  it  comes  to  an  earlier  maturity,  and  that 
certain  buds  receive  better  nourishment  than  when  growing  as 
standards.  A  dwarf  tree  never  makes  a  rank  growth,  so  in  this 
respect  it  may  be  said  to  be  at  all  times  more  inclined  to  bear 
fruit  than  the  standard.  If,  in  addition,  the  stock  serves  as  a 
check  to  the  return  passage  of  sap,  we  have  the  condition  which 
we  suppose  will  produce  fruit  in  standard  trees. 

In  the  case  of  pears,  there  is  less  difference  between  the  bear¬ 
ing  periods  of  standards  and  dwarfs  than  there  is  in  apples  The 
difference  that  does  exist  may  be  caused  by  the  same  conditions 
which  were  advanced  above  as  causes  for  the  earlier  fruiting  of 
apples.  Dwarf  pear  trees  are  also  supposed  to  produce  larger  and 
handsomer  fruit  than  standard  trees,  but  I  know  of  no  experi¬ 
ments  which  have  shown  this  to  be  the  case,  although  the  truth 
of  the  statement  is  highly  probable.  All  pear  growers  seem  to 
agree  that  dwarf  trees  bear  more  regularly  than  standards,  and 
it  is  the  general  impression  that  they  bear  more  abundantly  in 
proportion  to  their  size. 

The  entire  subject  of  plant  dwarfing  is  an  extremely  intricate 
one.  Directly  connected  with  it  are  all  the  questions  relating  to 
the  formation  of  leaf  and  fruit  buds,  the  effects  of  more  or  less 
active  vegetative  growth  upon  fruitfulness,  the  kinds  and  propor¬ 
tionate  amounts  of  food  which  are  most  influential  in  producing  a 
desired  effect,  the  influence  of  certain  mechanical  disturbances 
upon  the  habits  of  the  plant.  These  and  many  other  equally 
important  points  still  require  investigation.  Laws  controlling 
such  behavior  of  plants  undoubtedly  exist,  but  continued  obser¬ 
vation  and  wide  experience  must  be  had  before  these  laws  may  be 
formulated  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

Fruits  grown  as  dwarfs. — The  pear  is  the  fruit  most  commonly 
dwarfed.  It  might  be  said  that  in  the  eastern  states  fully  50  per 
cent  of  the  trees  are  grown  in  this  manner.  The  quince  is  used 
for  stock.  Such  trees -are  very  productive  and  under  proper 
treatment  they  are  long  lived.  One  interesting  point  to  consider 
in  connection  with  dwarf  pears  is  the  fact  that  some  varieties  do 
not  grow  well  upon  the  quince,  while  others  behave  better  when 
dwarfed  than  when  grown  upon  free  stocks.  Apple  varieties,  how¬ 
ever,  are  supposed  to  grow  with  equal  readiness  upon  Paradise  or 
upon  Doucin  stock. 


324 


Bulletin  ii6. 


Cherries  may  also  be  grown  as  dwarfs.  The  stock  most  gener¬ 
ally  used  in  such  cases  is  Prunus  Mahaleb ,  but  the  top  must  be 
kept  severely  pruned,  otherwise  large  trees  will  be  formed  ;  but 
the  dwarf  trees  are  rarely  grown  in  this  country.*  In  Europe, 
however,  the  small  cherry  bushes  have  the  reputation  of  being 
exceedingly  productive,  the  fruit  at  the  same  time  being  of  very 
fine  quality.  These  plants  are  grown  mostly  by  amateurs. 

Plums  have  long  been  dwarfed  by  pruning  the  roots  severely 
every  year  or  two,  so  that  the  top  growth  of  the  tree  may  be 
checked.  Such  trees  bear  regularly  and  abundantly;  cherries 
may  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner  with  the  same  result. 

II.  Dwarfing  the  Apple. 

Apples  are  at  present  regularly  dwarfed  by  grafting  or  budding 
the  desired  variety  upon  some  small  form  of  the  common  apple 
species,  Pyrics  Malus.  The  species  is  extremely  variable,  having 
produced  the  bulk  of  the  varieties  now  in  cultivation  (all  save 
the  crabs  are  of  this  species)  as  well  as  the  dwarf  forms,  the 
Doucin  and  Paradise  apples,  which  at  present  serve  as  stocks  to 
check  the  growth  of  the  more  vigorous  sorts.  These  dwarf  ap¬ 
ples  were  originally  seedlings,  the  same  as  our  present 
varieties  are  ;  and  no  doubt  similar  varieties  appear  at  the  present 
day,  but  we  do  not  look  for  them  and  save  them.  Gardeners 
have  known  the  dwarf  varieties  of  apples  for  many  centuries,  and 
the  introduction  of  these  forms  into  cultivation  can  no  longer  be 
traced  with  certainty.  The  subject  is  made  the  more  difficult  be¬ 
cause  of  the  repeated  transfer  of  the  same  name  to  different  var¬ 
ieties  of  apples ;  this  has  been  done  so  frequently  that  the  term 
“  Paradise  apple  ’  ’  may  more  properly  be  comsidered  to  refer  to 
a  class  of  apples  rather  than  to  a  single  variety. 

The  Paradise  apple. — Early  botanists  considered  as  different 
species  many  forms  of  apples  which  are  at  present  recognized  as 
mere  varieties  of  one  species.  The  Paradise  apple,  as  now  known, 

*As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  sour  cherries,  and  very  often  the  sweet  ones,  are 
grown  upon  Mahaleb  stock  in  New  York  state.  The  Mahaleb  stock  is  more 
easily  worked  and  managed  than  the  Mazzard  or  Sweet  Cherry  stock.  The 
trees  which  are  grown  upon  Mahalebs  ordinarily  reach  their  full  stature. 
They  are  made  dwarf  only  by  judicious  pruning.  L.  H.  b. 


Dwarf  Apptfs. 


325 


is  probably  similar  to  the  plant  described  by  Bauhin  as  Malus 
pumila ,  “whose  fruit  is  the  apple  of  Adam.’’*  It  was  said  to 
bear  both  red  and  white  fruits.  Einnseus  classed  it  as  Pyrus 
Malus,  var.  Paradisiacal ,  while  Roemer  called  it  Malus  Par acLisiaca.% 
The  plant  is  distinguished,  aside  from  dwarfness,  according  to 
Koch,  by  its  smooth,  shiny  branches,  both  the  old  and  the  newly 
matured  wood  having  a  dark  brown  color.  The  leaves  are  finely 
serrated  and  taper  at  both  ends.  One  of  the  most  important  char¬ 
acters  of  this  apple  as  well  as  other  dwarf  forms,  is  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  underground  stems,  and  of  stolons  by  means  of  which  the 
plant  may  be  rapidly  propagated.  These  forms  are  also  easily 
grown  from  cuttings,  in  which  they  differ  from  most  strong  grow¬ 
ing  varieties.  In  southern  Europe,  and  especially  in  France,  the 
roots  are  said  to  be  extremely  brittle,  although  in  northern  Ger¬ 
many  this  character  is  not  always  very  marked.  The  fruit  as  a 
rule  is  small  with  a  yellow  skin  and  white  flesh  ;  it  generally 
ripens  during  late  summer  or  early  fall. 

Bauhin  mentions  two  explanations  for  the  origin  of  the  common 
names  of  this  variety.  ||  They  are  not  entirely  satisfactory,  but 
the  first  probably  contains  a  hint  of  the  truth.  He  says  :  “  Tra¬ 
gus,  who  describes  the  Argentina,  describes  certain  kinds  of  ap¬ 
ples  from  Germany.  Some  are  sweet,  white,  oblong,  etc.,  and 
are  called  Paradise  apple.  It  is  seen  that  Tragus,  according  to 
the  common  opinion,  believed  that  this  apple  is  from  the  tree 
whose  fruit  the  great  Johovah  forbade  our  first  parent,  Adam,  to 
eat.  *  *  * 

“  Hieron  Brunsch  calls  that  apple  the  Paradise  in  which  the 
bite  of  Adam  and  Eve  can  be  seen.’’  *  *  * 

*  1.  “  Malus  pumila,  que  potius  frutex  qua  arbor. 

Mala  praecocia,  Trag.  Tab. 

Malus  humilis.  cujus  fructus  pomum  Adami. 

Gesn.  Hort.’’  [Py.  and  g.  malus  paradisiana]. 

“  Fruit  both  red  and  white.’’ 

The  name  in  the  brackets  has  been  written  in  the  volume  of  Bauhin’s 
Pinax  owned  by  Harvard  University.  The  writing  is  old  and  whose  it  is  has 
not  been  determined.  The  copy  at  the  congressional  library  at  Wash¬ 
ington  contains  no  specific  mention  of  the  Paradise  apple. 

t  “Species  Plantarum,’’  1753,  479. 

X  “Synopses  Monographicae,”  iii.  1847,  195. 

||  “Historiae  Plantarum  Universalis,’’  i.  1650,  7. 


326 


Bulletin  ii6. 


‘  ‘  Gesnerus  *  *  *  says  there  are  two  kinds  of  dwarf  apples, 

one  of  which  is  called  the  Paradise  apple.  This  variety,  *  *  * 

is  similar  to  that  which  Matthise  Curtius  calls  the  Paradise.  It  is 
white,  and  ripens  late  in  July.  The  plant  is  a  bush  not  more  than 
4  cubits  [6  feet]  high,  propagating  itself  from  the  roots.” 

Parkinson  describes  the  Paradise  apple  in  the  following  brief 
terms  :*  “  The  Paradise  apple  is  a  faire,  goodly  yellow  apple,  but 
light  and  spongy,  and  of  a  bitterish  sweet  taste,  not  to  be  com¬ 
mended.  ” 

No  single  variety  can,  therefore,  have  been  considered  as  the 
true  apple  of  Paradise,  or  Adam’s  apple,  by  those  early  writers. 
Their  descriptions  include  those  apples  which  grow  upon  bushes 
or  low  trees,  these  having  the  power  of  propagating  themselves 
rapidly  by  suckers  or  underground  stems,  and  whose  fruit  is  light 
colored,  often  tinged  with  red  on  the  sunny  side.  Even  in  more 
modern  times,  the  name  Paradise  has  been  very  loosely  used. 
Koch  speaks  as  follows  regarding  its  present  significance  in  Ger¬ 
many.  f  “  By  the  name  Paradise  apple  we  now  designate,  as  was 
formerly  done  by  the  Italians  especially,  a  considerable  number 
of  different  varieties,  all  of  which  are  especially  handsome.  In  north¬ 
ern  Germany  the  name  applies  to  Pyrus  spectabilis.  The  pomolo- 
logist  Henne  considered  it  as  belonging  to  the  White  Winter  Kal- 
vill,  while  the  Red  Fall  Kalvill  was  called  by  Diel  the  Red  Para¬ 
dise.  In  the  Netherlands,  the  Eiser  also  bears  the  name  of  the 
Double  Sour  Paradise.  We  also  have  a  yellow  Paradise  ;  and  the 
Red  Stettine  is  frequently  termed  Paradise.  Many  other  cases 
might  be  mentioned. 

These  examples  will  suffice  to  show  with  what  freedom  the 
name  Paradise  was  applied  to  apples  which  possessed  such 
beauty  that  their  beholders  were  brought  under  the  same  spell  as 
that  once  exerted  by  the  forbidden  fruit  of  the  Garden  of  Eden. 

Three  forms  of  apples  which  are  suitable  for  stocks  are  men¬ 
tioned  by  Philip  Miller  in  his  Gardeners’  Dictionary.  ||  They 
are  all  included  under  Malus  pumila.  They  are  as  follows  : 

*“  Paradisus  Terrestris,”  1629,  588. 

t  “  Die  Deutschen  Obstgeholze,”  Stuttgart,  1876,  62. 

I  See  volume  I.  of  Dochnal’s  “  Fiihrer  der  Obstkunde.” 

||  Sixth  edition,  1752. 


Dwarf  Apprfs. 


327 


“  The  Crab,  [. Mains  sylvestris ,  acido  fructo  albo ,  Tourn.]  which 
is  the  first  sort  here  mentioned,  has  been  generally  esteemed  as 
the  best  stock  for  grafting  apples  upon,  being  very  hardy,  and 
of  long  duration  ;  but  of  late  years  there  have  been  few  persons 
who  have  been  curious  enough  to  raise  these  stocks,  having  com¬ 
monly  sown  the  kernels  of  all  sorts  of  cider- apples  for  stocks  with¬ 
out  distinction,  as  these  are  much  easier  to  procure  than  the  other; 
so  the  gardeners  generally  call  all  those  crabs,  which  are  pro- 
kuced  from  the  kernel,  and  have  not  been  grafted  ;  but  were  the 
kernels  of  the  crabs  sown,  I  should  prefer  those  for  stocks  ;  be¬ 
cause  they  are  never  so  luxuriant  in  their  growth,  as  those  from 
apple-kernels  ;  and  they  will  continue  longer  sound  ;  beside,  these 
will  preserve  some  of  the  best  sorts  of  apples  in  their  true  size, 
color  and  flavor  ;  whereas  the  other  free-stocks  produce  larger 
fruit,  which  are  not  so  well  tasted,  nor  will  they  keep  so  long. 

“  The  Paradise-apple  hath,  of  late  years,  greatly  obtained  for 
stocks  to  graft  or  bud  upon  ;  but  these  are  not  of  long  duration  ; 
nor  will  the  trees  grafted  upon  them  ever  grow  to  any  size,  unless 
they  are  planted  so  low  as  that  the  Cyon  may  strike  root  into  the 
ground,  when  it  will  be  equal  to  no  stock  ;  for  the  graft  will  draw 
its  nourishment  from  the  ground,  so  that  it  is  only  by  way  of 
curiosity,  or  for  very  small  gardens,  that  these  stocks  are  proper, 
since  there  can  never  be  expected  any  considerable  quantity  of 
fruit  from  such  trees. 

“  These  trees  have  been  much  more  esteemed  in  France,  where 
they  were  frequently  brought  to  the  table  in  the  pots  growing 
with  their  fruit  upon  them  ;  but  this  being  only  a  curiosity,  it 
never  obtained  much  in  England ;  so  that  the  gardeners  do  not 
propagate  many  of  them  here  at  present. 

“There  is  another  apple  which  is  called  the  Dutch  Paradise- 
apple,  much  cultivated  in  the  nurseries,  for  grafting  apples  upon 
in  order  to  have  them  dwarfs  ;  and  these  will  not  decay  or  canker 
as  the  other,  nor  do  they  stint  the  grafts  near  so  much  ;  so  are 
generally  preferred  for  planting  espaliers  or  dwarfs,  being  easily 
kept  within  the  compass  usually  a  lotted  to  these  trees. 

“  Some  persons  have  also  made  use  of  Codlin-stocks,  to  graft 
apples  upon,  in  order  to  make  them  dwarf ;  but  the  fruits  which 
are  upon  these  stocks  are  not  so  firm,  nor  do  they  last  so  long  ; 


328 


BULLETIN  i  i 6. 


therefore  the  winter  fruits  should  never  be  grafted  upon  these.” 

The  Dutch  Paradise  mentioned  by  Miller  is  at  present  unknown 
in  England  under  that  name.  From  the  description  given  above 
it  would  appear  that  this  variety,  or  class,  is  the  same  as  the  stock 
now  known  as  Doucin  (see  page  329).  His  Paradise  apple,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  very  similar  to  that  which  at  present  is  more 
definitely  termed  the  French  Paradise.  The  following  extract 
will  indicate  clearly  what  the  nature  of  this  variety  is : 

‘  ‘  At  the  same  time  will  be  forwarded  to  that  gentleman  500 
specimens  of  ‘  the  dwarf  apple  of  Armenia .  ’  They  are  all  much 
past  the  age  of  puberty,  though  only  18  inches  high.  I  received 
them  two  pears  ago  from  Armenia,  and  they  do  not  appear  to 
have  grown  at  all.  They  increase  slowly  in  thickness.  I  have 
often  seen  them  planted  in  pots  and  cases  on  the  terrace  in  the 
city  of  Aleppo,  of  40  and  50  years’  growth,  never  exceeding  2 
feet  in  height,  nor  in  the  thickness  of  their  stems  that  of  your 
forefinger,  without  their  ever  having  been  pruned.  To  test  the 
fact  that  their  diminutiveness  was  not  caused  by  their  being 
always  kept  in  pots  and  boxes.  I  planted  out  three  of  full  15 
years’  growth,  and  after  keeping  them  18  years  in  the  open 
ground,  found  they  had  made  no  perceptible  progress.  I  remark¬ 
ed  that  they  bear  best  when  their  roots  are  cramped.  They  are 
very  easily  propagated,  as  they  make  abundant  offsets,  and  take 
remarkably  well  from  cuttings.  Among  the  trees  now  sent, 
there  are  seventeen  which  were  made  from  cuttings  two  years  ago  ; 
and  10  budded,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  Ribston  pippin,  and 
other  sorts.”*  By  the  use  of  such  stocks,  plants  could  easily  be 
grown  in  pots  and  set  upon  the  table,  as  stated  by  Miller  ;  but 
they  can  possess  little  practical  value. 

The  French  Paradise  was  known  in  France  as  early  as  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  15th  century. f  It  was  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  highly  flavored  varieties  then  grown,  and  according  to 
Champier,  who  lived  about  a  hundred  years  later,  it  was  identical 
with  two  of  the  best  varieties  grown  in  his  day.  The  first  pub¬ 
lished  account  of  the  fruit,  according  to  Koch,  appeared  in  Jean  de 
Ruelle’s  “  De  Natura  stirpium,  libri  tres.”  This  fruit  was  of  a 

*Jour.  of  the  Hort.  Soc.,  London,  1848,  iii.  116. 

tKoch.  “Die  Duetschen  Obstgeholze,”  63. 


Dwarf  Apples. 


329 


red  color  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun,*  and  for  this  reason 
could  not  have  been  identical  with  other  forms  classed  in  the 
group. 

The  Doucin  apple . — The  introduction  of  the  Doucin  stock  can  be 
traced  with  more  accuracy  than  that  of  the  Paradise.  According 
to  Koch,f  ‘  ‘  It  appears  that  the  Doucin  is  of  Italian  origin  and  was 
first  brought  to  notice  by  Agostino  Gallo  during  the  first  century 
following  the  middle  ages  [probably  the  16th  century.]  He 
mentioned  two  forms,  Dolciano  nano  and  Dolciano  Mezzano, 
meaning  the  dwarf  and  the  semi-dwarf  sweet-apple.  We  do  not 
know  when  the  Doucin  was  brought  to  France,  but  it  was  proba¬ 
bly  introduced  soon  after  it  became  known  in  Italy.”  The  time 
of  its  first  use  in  England  is  also  a  matter  of  doubt,  and  judging 
from  the  writings  of  Philip  Miller,  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
retained  its  original  name.  (See  page  328.)  Yet  Parkinson 
briefly  mentions  it  :f  “  The  Deusan  or  apple  John  is  a  delicate 
fine  fruit,  well  relished  when  it  beginneth  to  be  fit  to  be  eaten, 
and  endureth  good  longer  than  any  other  apple.” 

The  Doucin  is  a  stronger  growing  stock  than  the  French 
Paradise,  forming  a  bush  or  small  tree  intermediate  between  the 
latter  and  a  standard  tree.  It  also  is  said  to  have  the  power  of 
throwing  out  underground  stems  or  suckers,  although  it  does 
not  have  stolous,  and  it  may  be  propagated  from  cuttings  of 
ripened  wood.  The  wood  is  more  or  less  covered  with  fine  hairs, 
or  tomentum.  The  fruit  resembles  the  Paradise  in  size,  but  the 
color  is  more  red,  especially  on  the  sunny  side.  The  sweet  flavor 
has  caused  it  to  receive  its  common  name,  Doucin. 

Koch  states|  |  that  the  plant  apparently  grows  wild  in  southeastern 
Russia  where  it  forms  thickets,  especially  in  the  region  of  the 
lower  Don  and  Danube  rivers.  It  was  called  Pyrus  praecox  by 
Pallas,  and  may  be  identical  with  P.  Sieversii  of  Eedebour,  who 
found  a  similar  plant  growing  in  southern  Siberia.  As  the  botany 
of  the  apple  is  at  present  understood,  however,  the  Doucin  and 
Paradise,  as  I  have  already  said,  are  held  to  be  simply  forms  of 
the  common  apple. 

*Bauhin,  “  Historia  Plantarum  ”  1.  18. 

1“  Die  Deutschen  Obstgeholze,”  66. 

j  “  Paradisus  Terrestris,”  1629,  587. 

||  Die  Deutschen  Obstgeholze.  65. 


330 


Bulletin  ii6. 


The  Rennette  apple  ( Pommier  nain  de  Rennette ): — A  third  stock, 
one  mentioned  by  Duhamel,*  is  rarely  named  in  horticultural 
writings.  Duhamel  compared  it  with  the  two  more  common 
forms:  ‘  ‘  The  Doucin  apple  forms  but  a  large  shrub,  the  Paradise 
rises  to  a  less  height,  while  the  Rennette  apple  scarcely  exceeds  a 
gilly- flower  in  size  ;  and  thus  it  is  that  the  size  and  the  habit  of 
apples  vary  with  the  different  forms.” 

The  Rennette  of  Duhamel  seems  to  resemble  the  Paradise,  and 
also  the  “Apple  of  Armenia”  mentioned  on  page  328.  The 
characters  which  distingnish  the  Paradise  from  the  Doucin,  the 
Doucin  from  the  Codlin,  the  Codlin  from  the  Crab,  and  the  Crab 
from  our  named  cultivated  varieties,  are  by  no  means  satisfactory 
or  reliable.  One  form  gradually  approaches  another  as  regards 
stature,  and  seedlings  which  are  more  or  less  dwarf  have 
undoubtedly  been  referred  to  the  class  which  they  most  closely 
resembled.  All  who  have  observed  the  height  reached  by 
seedling  apples  will  have  seen  that  they  vary  exceedingly.  Some 
plants  grow  slowly  and  remain  small ;  others  start  off  from  the 
beginning  and  make  a  clean  rapid  growth.  As  all  such  seedlings 
are  generally  the  offspring  of  vigorous  sorts,  it  is  rather  surprising 
that  some  should  remain  as  small  as  they  do.  If  the  seed  of 
smaller  varieties  were  to  be  planted,  undoubtedly  still  more  dwarf 
forms  would  appear,  and  eventually  the  small  French  Paradise 
stock  might  be  reproduced. 

The  power  of  producing  offsets  and  stolons,  which  has  been 
emphasized  by  some  of  the  writers  mentioned  above,  need  not 
necessarily  be  considered  as  an  essential  character  of  the  dwarf 
forms  at  present  grown.  Local  conditions  probably  exert  consid¬ 
erable  influence  upon  this  habit,  for  we  have  a  plant  of  the 
so-called  Paradise  apple  which  has  been  growing  upon  the  Station 
grounds  for  six  years,  and  it  has  as  yet  failed  to  produce  a  single 
creeping  or  under  ground  stem  which  could  be  used  in  forming 
an  independent  plant.  Neither  is  the  power  of  growing  from  hard 
wood  cuttings,  limited  to  dwarf  trees.  Some  of  our  orchard 
varieties  may  be  propagated  readily  in  this  manner,  even  with 
little  care,  so  that  this  character  also  maybe  considered  as  posses¬ 
sing  only  relative  importance. 


*  Traits  des  Arbres  Fruitiers,  1768,  I.  273. 


Dwarf  Apples. 


33i 


Propagation  of  dwarf  apple  stocks. — When  the  stock  plants 
sucker  freely,  the  suckers  may  be  detached  with  a  certain  amount 
of  root  system,  and  then  be  transplanted  and  grown  as  independ¬ 
ent  plants.  A  very  common  nursery  practice,  however,  is  to 
subject  the  plants  to  mound-layering.  This  is  performed  by 
growing  the  plant  or  ‘  ‘  stool 5  5  until  it  has  become  well  establish¬ 
ed.  It  is  then  cut  off  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground  and  all 
the  shoots  which  are  thrown  out  are  allowed  to  grow.  These 
shoots  are  made  to  root  by  heaping  the  earth  about  their  bases, 
thus  burying  their  lower  half.  This  may  be  done  the  first  year 
and  rooted  plants  will  be  formed  by  fall,  especially  if  the  shoots 
have  been  partially  cut  or  injured  near  the  stock ;  such  plants, 
however,  are  weak,  and  it  is  better  to  allow  the  shoots  to  grow 
unmolested  during  the  first  year,  the  mound  being  formed  in  the 
spring  of  the  second. 

The  rooted  shoots  are  removed  in  the  fall  of  the  second  year, 
and  if  sufficiently  vigorous  they  may  be  grafted  with  the  desired 
variety  during  the  following  winter,  or  budded  the  next  summer. 
Small  stocks  should  be  grown  on  in  the  nursery  until  they  have 
reached  the  desired  size  for  working. 

Pruning. — Dwarf  apple  trees  should  be  very  thoroughly  pruned 
from  the  time  they  are  set.  The  object  of  this  pruning  is  three¬ 
fold  :  the  wood  which  is  capable  of  bearing  fruit  will  be  more 
freely  produced,  the  fruit  spurs  will  be  distributed  evenly 
over  all  the  lower  parts  of  the  trees  as  well  as  the  top,  and  the  tree 
will  be  kept  in  a  dwarf  habit.  These  results  may  not  be  obtained 
if  too  little  wood  is  removed.  Each  year’s  growth,  if  vigorous, 
should  be  cut  back  at  least  one-half  or  two-thirds,  and  generally 
more  may  be  removed  with  perfect  safety.  Occasionally,  dwarf 
trees  will  be  found  in  which  the  natural  vigcfr  of  the  cion  seems  to 
have  stimulated  an  undue  growth  of  roots,  so  that  the  tree,  instead 
of  remaining  small,  increases  rapidly  in  size,  and  soon  it  bears 
little  resemblance  to  the  plants  frequently  illustrated  in  books  to 
show  how  a  dwarf  apple  tree  ought  to  appear.  The  annual 
growths  may  be  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  and  at  this  rate 
good  sized  trees  are  formed  in  a  short  time. 

Figure  118  represents  a  Ben  Davis  apple  upon  Paradise  stock  ; 
the  tree  has  been  growing  in  the  Cornell  plantation  six  years  and 


332 


Bulletin  ii6. 


although  it  is  considerably  smaller  than  a  standard  tree  of  the 
same  age,  still  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  more  than  a  half 


1 1 8. — Dwarf  Ben  Davis  six  years  from  planting  ;  before  priming. 

dwarf.  A  true  dwarf  tree,  as  described  in  most  writings,  would 
have  a  top  hardly  one- third  as  large.  In  past  years  this  tree  has 


Dwarf  Apples. 


333 


been  pruned  with  but  moderate  severity,  so  that  it  reached  a  height 
of  fully  eight  feet.  In  this  case,  no  material  disadvantage  resulted 
from  such  treatment,  for  an  abundance  of  fruit  spurs  may  be  found 
distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  tree.  A  Maiden  Blush  dwarf 


1 19. — Same  as  Fig.  nS)  after  pruning . 
which  received  similar  prunings  was  affected  differently  ;  the 
buds  which  were  near  the  point  at  which  the  annual  growth  was 
cut  back  were  the  only  ones  that  started,  and  their  growth  was 
so  rapid  that  practically  no  fruit  spurs  were  formed  during  the 


334 


Bulletin  ii6. 


first  two  or  three  years,  and  those  which  have  appeared  since 
that  time  are  so  high  up  in  the  tree  that  the  lower  parts  of  the 
main  branches  are  bare  and  therefore  unproductive.  This 


120. — Neglected  dwarf  apple  about  so  years  from  planting. 

defect  frequently  becomes  exaggerated  as  the  tree  grows  older. 
An  excellent  example  of  the  ruinous  effect  of  continually  remov¬ 
ing  the  lower  branches  from  a  dwarf  apple  is  shown  in  Fig.  120. 
This  tree,  an  Early  Joe,  was  planted  in  its  present  position  fully 
thirty  years  ago  (not  upon  the  Cornell  plantation  !).  It  has  been 


Dwarf  Apples. 


335 


pruned  gradually  higher  until  at  present  the  lowest  fruiting 
branches  are  at  least  five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  a  total  height 
of  practically  twelve  feet  has  been  reached.  This  is  not  an 
ideal  dwarf !  The  tree  shown  on  the  title-page  represents  a  much 
better  type.  The  original  from  which  the  drawing  was  made 
was  five  feet  in  height,  the  lowest  leaves  being  but  eighteen 
inches  from  the  ground.  The  top  has  been  allowed  to  assume  its 
natural  spreading  form,  but  a  firm  control  has  continually  been 
exercised  over  any  too  ambitious  efforts  of  the  branches.  The 
tree  has  practically  the  same  form  and  size  which  it  will  retain 
during  its  entire  existence.  The  main  branches  will  increase  in 
circumference,  the  outer  limbs  will  gradually  lengthen,  and  the 
fruit  spurs  will  become  more  crooked,  yet  the  tree  will  always 
be  low  and  spreading.  The  one  criticism  which  might  be  made 
is  that  the  lowest  fruiting  branches  are  still  too  high.  The 
foliage  of  the  ideal  dwarf  apple  tree  almost  touches  the  ground  ; 
it  has  all  its  main  branches  well  studded  with  smaller  ones,  or 
with  fruit  spurs,  so  that,  when  in  full  leaf,  it  shall  appear 
“  feathered  ”  from  bottom  to  top. 

The  tree  represented  in  Fig.  118  is  worthy  of  careful  study. 
The  lower  branches  spring  from  the  trunk  at  a  height  of  less  than 
ten  inches  from  the  ground.  Several  large  branches  rise  in  an 
upward  and  outward  direction,  and  these  form  an  almost  perfect 
framework  for  supporting  the  smaller  limbs,  which  bear  the  fruit. 
The  wood  is  well  distributed,  and  its  amount  is  more  than  ample 
for  clothing  the  entire  top  with  an  abundance  of  leaves ;  it  is  well 
that  this  should  be  so,  for  it  allows  a  greater  choice  of  branches 
when  the  tree  is  being  pruned. 

The  same  tree  is  shown  in  Fig.  119,  after  having  been  pruned. 
The  pruning  has  been  severe,  as  the  tree  has  already  reached 
such  &ize  that  further  increase  should  be  made  slowly.  Much 
wood  is  allowed  to  remain  near  the  ground  and  in  the  center  of 
the  tree,  for  it  is  always  easier  to  remove  superfluous  branches 
than  it  is  to  insert  them  where  they  are  wanted.  The  form  of  the 
pruned  tree  is  that  of  a  rather  broad  vase,  this  being  the  shape 
which  the  tree  naturally  assumes.  During  the  coming  season,  it 
should  be  well  provided  with  foliage  so  that  none  of  the  main 
branches  shall  be  exposed  to  the  full  glare  of  the  summer  sun. 


336 


Bulletin  ii6. 


The  fruit  produced  will  also  receive  proper  shade  and  the  speci¬ 
men  as  a  whole  may  be  considered  as  a  good  type  of  dwarf  apple 
tree  which  has  not  been  forced  to  assume  a  form  which  is  unnat¬ 
ural  to  it. 

The  summer  pruning  of  dwarf  apple  trees  is,  as  a  rule,  unneces¬ 
sary  when  the  plants  are  grown  as  above  described.  If  branches 
are  desired  in  certain  parts  of  the  tree,  a  more  or  less  severe 
pruning  during  early  summer  will  have  a  strong  tendency  to  force 
growth  to  appear  from  dormant  or  adventitious  buds.  It  will 
cause  the  appearance  of  “water-sprouts,”  which,  if  checked  in 
turn,  may  be  converted  to  useful  purposes.  Another  advantage 
of  'summer  pruning  is  that  it  probably  induces  the  formation  of 
fruit-buds,  but  as  dwarf  trees  rarely  possess  the  fault  of  bearing 
too  little  fruit  for  their  size,  this  end  need  seldom  be  sought. 

The  study  of  the  fruit-buds  of  an  apple  tree  is  an  interesting 
one,  the  more  so  on  account  of  the  mystery  which  will  be  found 
connected  with  their  formation.  One  who  studies  fruit-buds,  will 
not  conduct  his  investigations  very  far  before  he  is  puzzled  first 
by  one  question,  then  by  another,  and  eventually  he  may  feel  lost 
in  a  sea  of  doubt.  Dwarf  apple  and  pear  trees  are  excellent  sub¬ 
jects  for  the  inquisitive  to  begin  with  ;  later  speculations  may  in¬ 
clude  all  the  other  fruits.  The  method  in  which  fruit-buds  are 
formed  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12 1,  the  spurs  having  been  taken 
from  a  dwarf  Ben  Davis  tree. 

The  twig  a  in  the  figure  shows  a  stem  which  is  nearly  all  two 
years  old.  The  growth  of  the  past  year  may  be  seen  only  near  the 
top,  starting  just  above  the  upper  spur.  The  terminal  bud  of  the 
shoot,  therefore,  grew  straight  on  and  may  have  reached  a  length 
of  12  or  15  inches.  But  it  was  not  so  with  the  lower  side  buds. 
These  made  a  growth  of  scarcely  half  an  inch,  yet  they  are  per¬ 
fectly  strong  and  healthy.  What  they  would  have  done  had  no 
fruit  been  borne  the  following  season  may  be  discovered  by  exam¬ 
ining  b.  The  two  spurs  upon  the  twig  are  each  two  years  of  age, 
the  twig  being  three  years,  for  it  made  one  year’s  growth  before 
the  spurs  broke  from  the  buds.  These  spurs  average  scarcely 
over  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  their  diameters  are  probably  but 
little  larger  than  they  were  the  year  before.  In  d,  in  the  center  of 
the  plate,  we  also  find  two-year-old  spurs,  but  one  became  ambi- 


Dwarf  Apples. 


337 


tious  during  the  second  year  of  its  existence,  and  grew  outward, 
probably  in  search  of  more  light.  The  portion  c  represents  a 

a  b  d  (center.)  c  e  (bottom.) 


I2i. — Spurs  of  Ben  Davis  apple  showing  leaf  buds  upon  b}  c,  dy  and  e; 
blossom  buds  are  upon  a,  and  also  upon  c  and  d. 

spur  which  has  seen  four  summers.  The  small  irregular  line  at 
its  base  shows  where  the  first  year’s  growth  stopped  ;  those  an 
inch  higher  mark  the  increase  of  the  second  year  ;  the  third  year 
added  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  and  the  fourth  applied  the  top 
story  to  the  structure.  The  spurs  of  e  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
plate,  have  the  same  age,  but  the  annual  growths  are  of  more  uni¬ 
form  lengths. 


33§ 


Bulletin  ii6. 


By  examining  the  buds  upon  these  spurs,  it  will  be  found  that 
some  are  smaller  than  others  and  that  they  vary  also  in  form. 
Such  buds  as  are  borne  at  the  ends  of  the  long  spur  upon  d)  e  and 
the  two  upon  b  are  pointed  and  they  have  a  diameter  which  is  less 
than  that  of  the  twig  upon  which  they  are  borne.  Larger  and 
more  spherical  buds  may  be  found  upon  a ,  c,  and  d.  These  are 
what  are  generally  termed  fruit  buds  as  they  contain  minute  blos¬ 
som  buds  which,  with  the  coming  of  spring,  will  develop  flowers 
as  well  as  leaves.  No  blossom  buds  will  be  found  in  the  smaller 
buds,  but  only  leaves,  and  during  the  coming  season  a  leafy  shoot 
will  be  produced,  and  the  terminal  bud  may  prepare  for  flowering 
the  next  year. 

Young  fruit-bearing  wood,  therefore,  appears  as  shown  in 
the  illustration,  and  such  wood  should  be  well  distributed 
throughout  the  entire  tree.  Its  removal  means  the  removal 
of  fruit,  although  the  fruit  may  not  appear  for  a  year  or  two  or 
three;  still  it  will  appear  sometime  upon  spurs,  and  such  small 
branches  should  always  be  removed  cautiously.  The  same  re¬ 
marks  apply  also  to  standard  trees,  and  these  should  never  have 
their  branches  pruned  so  that  they  resemble  long-handled  brooms, 
the  brush  of  which  projects  from  certain  parts  of  what  should  be 
a  symmetrical  tree. 

III.  Commercial  Value  of  Dwarf  Apples. 

Yield  of  dwarf  orchards. — The  first  thought  which  naturally 
arises  when  the  commercial  value  of  dwarf  apples  is  considered, 
is  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  by  such  trees.  The  statement  is 
generally  accepted  that  such  fruit  is  larger,  handsomer,  and  per¬ 
haps  a  little  earlier  and  of  better  quality  than  that  produced  by 
standards.  The  extent  to  which  this  is  true  has  not  yet  been 
clearly  defined,  and  careful  investigation  may  modify  the  force  of 
the  assertion  ;  but  even  granting  its  entire  truth,  there  still  re¬ 
mains  the  consideration  of  the  ultimate  yield  of  fruit,  in  bushels, 
per  acre.  The  question  is,  unfortunately,  answered  with  diffi¬ 
culty.  There  are  at  present  extremely  few  dwarf  apple  trees 
growing  in  New  York,  and  those  which  do  exist  are  mostly  of 
different  varieties  so  that  comparative  yields  cannot  be  made  with 
entire  satisfaction.  Methods  of  pruning,  or  of  not  pruning,  as 


Dwarf  Apples. 


339 


well  as  differences  of  soils,  location,  etc.,  also  enter  as  modifying 
circumstances.  Nevertheless,  some  data  are  available  for  estimat¬ 
ing  approximate  yields. 

The  following  remarks  refer  entirely  to  trees  grown  on  Paradise 
stock  ;  they  do  not  include  such  trees  as  have  taken  root  above 
the  point  of  union  of  cion  and  stock.  Dwarf  trees  which  have 
been  set  so  that  the  union  is  several  inches  below  ground,  are  apt 
to  form  roots  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cion,  and  then  more  active 
growth  takes  place.  Such  trees  are  no  longer  dwarfs,  but  they 
must  be  considered  as  standards  or  at  least  as  half-dwarfs. 

The  first  estimates  here  given  are  based  largely  upon  actual 
observation  of  dwarf  apple  trees,  and  also  partly  upon  theoretical 
grounds.  The  printed  decriptions  for  growing  dwarfs  almost 
invariably  state  that  the  trees  should  be  set  at  intervals  of  about 
six  feet  each  way  for  ordinary  culture.  In  Thomas’  American 
Fruit  Culturist  the  distance  named  is  eight  feet  for  round-headed 
trees  upon  Paradise  stock  ;  and  “for  pyramids  or  dwarf  standards 
on  Doucin  stock,  ten  feet.”  Doucin  stock  is  at  present  neither 
grown  nor  used  in  this  country  except  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
and  I  have  as  yet  been  unable  to  find  a  bearing  tree  growing  upon 
it.  Practically  all  trees  now  sold  by  New  York  nurserymen  are 
upon  Paradise  stock,  and  the  trees  scattered  about  the  State  are 
also  said  to  be  growing  upon  this  variety.  The  Doucin  stock 
must  therefore  be  omitted  from  this  discussion  ;  only  the  plants 
growing  upon  the  so-called  Paradise  stock  can  be  considered  in 
detail,  the  value  and  characters  of  plants  growing  upon  the 
Doucin  resting  upon  the  statements  ofcorrespondents(see  page  343). 

I  am  lead  to  believe  that  even  eight  feet  is  too  close  for  dwarf 
apples  when  grown  in  a  closed  vase  form,  or  when  allowed  to 
assume  their  most  natural  shape,  as  shown  in  the  frontispiece, 
these  two  methods  being  the  only  ones  followed  to  any  extent  in 
New  York.  Upright  growing  varieties  are  trained  according  to 
the  first  system,  while  those  of  spreading  habit  are  allowed  to 
grow  in  their  natural  form.  Ten  feet  appears  to  be  none  too 
much  for  either  form  of  tree,  and  probably  twelve  feet  would  fre¬ 
quently  be  preferable.  On  rich  soils  and  with  vigorous  varieties, 
a  distance  between  the  trees  of  fifteen  feet  will  prove  advantageous, 
and  it  thus  appears  that  the  number  of  trees  which  may  profitably 


340 


Bulletin  ii6. 


be  planted  upon  an  acre  depends  largely  upon  the  habit  of  the 
variety,  and  upon  the  character  of  the  soil ;  similar  variations 
occur  also  in  the  case  of  standard  trees.  Assuming,  however,  an 
average  distance  of  twelve  feet  between  the  trees,  there  may  be 
set  300  trees  per  acre.  During  the  first  five  years  of  their  growth, 
these  trees  may  yield  some  fruit,  or  they  may  not ;  the  dwarf 
apples  growing  upon  the  Cornell  grounds  have  been  set  six  years, 
and  none  of  the  trees  have  borne  over  a  dozen  apples  during  any 
one  season.  The  fruit  which  was  produced  was  in  no  particular 
extraordinary  ;  size,  color,  and  quality  were  apparently  identical 
with  fruit  from  standard  trees.  Thus  far,  therefore,  our  dwarfs 
have  not  distinguished  themselves  as  possessing  superiority  of  any 
kind,  except  possibly  early  fruiting,  yet  we  have  several  standard 
trees  of  other  varieties  which  have  borne  more  fruit  than  these  * 

When  dwarf  apples  have  reached  the  age  of  ten  or  fifteen  years, 
they  become  more  useful.  Such  trees  seem  to  average  in  this 
State  from  three  to  four  pecks  of  apples  annually.  Assuming  the 
average  annual  yield  of  these  trees  to  be  three  pecks  per  tree, 
about  seventy-five  barrels  of  fruit  would  be  obtained  from  each 
acre  of  orchard,  every  year,  by  no  means  a  poor  yield.  But  after 
a  tree  has  passed  its  twentieth  year  still  larger  returns  may  be 
expected.  I  have  seen  dwarf  trees  over  thirty  years  of  age  which 
were  bearing  from  three  to  four  bushels  of  fruit,  but  such  trees  are 
rare  exceptions.  From  four  to  six  pecks  may  be  stated  as  repre¬ 
senting  approximately  the  annual  yield  of  mature  trees  of  naturally 
productive  varieties  which  are  grown  as  dwarfs,  and  which  have 
been  well  fertilized  and  pruned.  It  will  be  found  that  the  apples 
must  be  borne  with  considerable  regularity  that  such  an  average 
shall  be  maintained ;  one  year’s  partial  failure,  and  such  do 
occasionally  occur,  means  a  heavy  crop  for  the  succeeding  year  or 
two,  and  that  in  turn  leaves  an  exhausted  tree.  A  yield  of  about 

one  hundred  and  twenty-five  barrels  per  acre  would  be  obtained 
from  a  uniform  plantation,  at  the  rate  herb  assumed,  and  I  believe 
this  amount  represents  the  present  production  of  dwarf  trees 
which  have  been  well  grown. 

Yield  of  standard  orchards. — In  estimating  the  yield  of  stan¬ 
dard  apple  trees,  the  same  difficulties  are  encountered  as  in  the 

*  These  trees,  however,  were  removed  after  they  had  been  set  two  years,  so 
that  their  behavior  may  be  somewhat  abnormal.  L.  h.  b. 


Dwarf  Appees. 


34i 


case  of  dwarfs,  but  the  uncertainty  of  the  crop  is  here  even  more 
pronounced.  The  natural  fruitfulness  or  barrenness  of  a  variety 
expresses  itself  unequivocally,  for  the  modifying  circumstance  of 
dwarfing  does  not  obscure  these  characters.  Soil  and  location  are 
also  free  to  exert  a  direct  influence,  and  methods  of  cultivation, 
differing  widely  from  each  other,  also  play  an  important  part.  In 
considering  standard  orchards,  the  two  extremes  in  their  powers 
of  bearing  must  be  avoided,  as  has  also  been  done  in  the  discus¬ 
sion  of  dwarf  trees. 

An  apple  orchard  which  is  composed  of  vigorous-growing  varie¬ 
ties  should  be  set  so  that  the  trees  shall  be  at  least  forty  feet  apart 
each  way.  This  allows  twenty-seven  trees  upon  an  acre.  If  the 
varieties  are  but  moderately  productive,  and  the  trees  have  been 
fairly  well  cultivated,  a  yield  of  about  three  barrels  may  be 
expected  as  the  average  annual  crop  per  tree  while  the  orchard  is 
from  15  to  25  years  of  age.  From  this  period  until  the  trees 
begin  to  fail  from  old  age,  an  average  yield  of  five  barrels  per 
tree  is  more  than  is  generally  obtained.  At  this  rate,  the  total 
returns  from  an  acre  would  be  about  135  barrels,  a  crop  which 
exceeds  the  estimate  of  the  dwarf  trees  by  only  10  barrels. 
When  orchards  are  composed  of  the  less  vigorous  varieties  of 
apples,  the  trees  may  be  set  closer  together  ;  the  yield  per  tree 
will  be  less  than  that  of  the  larger  growing  sorts,  but  the  greater 
number  of  trees  may  bring  the  average  for  standards  to  practically 
the  same  figure. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the  yields  from  well  grown 
standard  and  dwarf  trees  do  not  differ  essentially,  but  such  dif¬ 
ference  as  does  exist  is  in  favor  of  standards.  Definite  data  of 
undoubted  accuracy  are  extremely  difficult  to  obtain.  The  above 
figures,  however,  are  founded  mainly  upon  my  own  observation. 
Fortunately  the  estimates  of  others  are  also  at  hand,  and  a  com¬ 
parison  of  these  conclusions  should  be  made. 

Other  estimates  of  yields  and  profits. — Rivers  writes*  as  follows 
regarding  the  returns  from  a  plantation  of  100  trees  of  Cox’s 
Orange  Pippin  grown  as  bushes  upon  Paradise  stock:  “These 
trees  will  this  season  (1864),  the  third  of  their  growth  in  their 


*  “  Miniature  Fruit  Garden.”  From  13th  English  Ed.  1866,  p.  69  et  seq. 


342 


Bulletin  116. 


present  quarters,  and  the  fourth  of  their  age,  give  an  average  of  a 
peck  from  each  tree,  so  that  we  might  have  from  4,840,  [set  3x3 
feet]  growing  on  an  acre  of  ground,  302  bushels  of  fine  apples, 
worth  5s.  per  bushel,  or  ^75.  In  1866,  the  trees  then  averaging 
half  a  peck  each,  would  double  this  sum,  and  make  an  acre  of 
apple  trees  a  very  agreeable  and  eligible  investment.”  It  was 
the  plan  of  this  writer  constantly  to  renew  certain  rows  of  trees 
so  that  the  orchard  should  continue  in  regular  bearing  condition. 

Another  interesting  account  is  that  of  Cheal.*  The  yields 
cited  by  him  were  actually  attained  by  one  of  his  friends.  The 
name  of  the  stock  is  not  mentioned.  The  tree  was  a  Warner’s 
King,  of  pyramidal  form,  and  was  planted  at  Ramsden,  in  Essex, 
in  November,  1871  : 

1872  Crop,  3  large  apples. 

1873  “  1  ]/2  pecks,  1878  Crop.  2  or  3  apples. 

1874  “  2  “  1879  “  . 6  pecks, 

1875  “  4  “  1880  “  .  . 5  “ 

1876  “  6  “  1881  “  . 4  “ 

1877  “  7  “  1882  “  . 3  “ 

“  Thus  the  average  crop  for  10  years  was  4  pecks  per  year. 
These  he  sold  in  Chelmsford  market  at  an  average  of  is.  6d.  per 
peck. 

‘  ‘  The  tree  occupies  a  space  of  not  more  than  3  square  yards  ; 
and  calculating  an  acre  of  such  trees  8  feet  apart,  or  681  per  acre, 
the  gross  return  would  be  £  204  per  acre  yearly.  ”f 

A  valuable  series  of  tables  has  been  furnished  me  by  P.  Peder¬ 
son,  Huntingdon  Valley,  Pa.  The  figures  refer  to  Danish  orchards, 
not  to  experience  in  America  ;  nevertheless  they  serve  to  indicate 
what  may  be  expected  in  this  country  where  the  conditions  in 
many  localities  do  not  differ  very  materially  from  those  existing 
in  Denmark  : 

“  Distances  of  planting  : 

Standard  apples,  30x30  ft.,  (quincunx,  27x30  ft). 

Apples  on  Doucin,  10x12  ft.,  or  12x12  ft. 

Apples  on  Paradise,  6x8  ft.,  or  8x10  ft. 

“  Expected  longevity  of  trees  : 

Standard  apples,  50  to  60  years. 


*  “  Fruit  Culture  ”  London,  1892,  p.  65. 
fA  pound  {£)  is  equal  to  about  $4.86. 


Dwarf  Apples. 


343 


Apples  on  Doucin,  30  to  35  years. 

Apples  on  Paradise,  20  to  25  years. 

“  Yield  per  tree  and  per  acre  : 

Standards,  30x30  ft.,  extra  good,  per  tree,  6  bus.  ;  per  acre, 
270  to  290  bus. 

Standards,  30x30  ft.,  good,  per  tree,  4  bus.;  per  acre,  180  to  190  bus. 

“  “  medium,  “  2  “  “  90  to  100  bus. 

On  Doucin,  12x12  ft.,  extra  good,  per  tree,  1  bus.;  per  acre  290 to 
310  bus. 

On  Doucin,  12x12  ft.,  good,  per  tree,  3pks.;  per  acre,  210  to  23obus. 

“  “  medium,  “  2  “  “  iootoi2obus. 

On  Paradise,  8x10  ft.,  extra  good,  per  tree,  2  pks.  ;  per  acre,  250 
to  270  bus. 

On  Paradise,  8x10ft.,  good,  per  tree,  1  pk. ;  per  acre,  120  to  140  bus. 
“  “  medium,  “  y2  “  “  60  to  80  bus.” 

Probably  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the  above  figures  is 
the  general  uniformity  in  the  yield  of  trees  of  an  equal  grade, 
regardless  of  the  method  of  growth.  The  Doucin  stock  invaria¬ 
bly  shows  greater  fruitfulness  than  either  of  the  others,  but  still 
the  differences  are  not  great.  When  the  above  yields  are  consid¬ 
ered  in  connection  with  the  condition  existing  in  this  country,  one 
is  involuntarily  lead  to  the  statement  that  methods  of  culture, 
pruning,  etc.,  have  more  to  do  with  the  yield  of  an  acre  of  apple 
trees  than  does  the  method  of  propagation  ;  and  it  is  by  no 
means  impossible  that  experience  will  prove  the  truth  of  the 
thought. 

An  extended  correspondence  with  many  American  growers  of 
dwarf  apples  has  resulted  in  the  receipt  of  letters  which  frequently 
express  somewhat  contradictory  opinions.  Upon  one  point,  how¬ 
ever,  all  the  writers  agree  fairly  well,  viz.  :  that  apple  trees  grown 
upon  Paradise  stock  are  unprofitable.  A  variety  of  causes  for 
this  opinion  are  advanced,  chief  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
unproductiveness,  short  life,  amount  of  care  required,  want  of 
uniformity  in  the  stock,  and  that  only  few  varieties  (of  which 
one  is  Gravenstein)  do  well  upon  it. 

Even  greater  variety  of  opinion  exists  regarding  the  Doucin 
stock.  The  majority  agree  in  saying  that  the  Doucin  is  in  no 
marked  degree  an  improvement  over  our  ordinary  free  stocks. 


344 


Bulletin  ii6. 


The  trees  do  not  bear  earlier,  they  grow  equally  large,  and  for 
these  reasons  they  have  no  particular  value.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  who  have  had  experience  with  these  trees  say  that  they  pos¬ 
sess  value,  perhaps  not  so  great  as  that  of  standards,  but  that  if 
properly  grown  they  will  produce  good  crops. 

.  The  general  opinion  is  that  all  dwarf  trees  are  more  regular 
in  bearing  than  standards,  although  the  total  yield  is  not  so  great. 
They  also  have  advantage  of  being  more  easily  pruned  and 
sprayed,  and  the  picking  of  the  fruit  is  also  more  easily  per¬ 
formed  ;  and  the  fruit  upon  such  trees  should  therefore  be  more 
uniform  and  of  better  quality  than  that  ordinarily  obtained  from 
standards.  Evidently  the  true  value  of  dwarf  apples  has  not  yet 
been  thoroughly  investigated  and  proved  in  this  country,  and 
before  the  trees  are  wholly  condemned  for  commercial  plantings 
they  should  be  carefully  grown  in  some  quantity. 

Varieties  suitable  for  dwarfing. — There  appears  to  be  much  less 
difficulty  in  growing  all  varieties  of  apples  upon  dwarf  stocks 
than  is  the  case  with  pears.  No  variety  appears  to  have  shown 
itself  useless  for  this  purpose,  although  some  are  recommended 
above  others.  It  may  probably  be  said  that  varieties  which  are 
naturally  shy  bearers  will  do  better  when  dwarfed  ;  naturally 
prolific  sorts  may  be  better  as  standards. 

Cheal  has  published*  a  list  which  includes  the  varieties  most 
suitable  in  England  for  dwarfing  : 

1.  “  Dessert  Apples.  Red  Astrachan,  Duchess  of  Gloucester, 
Worcester  Pearmain,  Lady  Sudeley,  King  of  Pippins,  Margil, 
Cox’s  Orange,  Mother,  Scarlet  Nonpareil,  Bradick’s  Nonpareil, 
Court  Pendu  Plat,  Ross  Nonpareil,  Mannington’s  Pearmain, 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  Sturmer  Pippin. 

2.  “  Kitchen  Apples.  Keswick  Codlin,  Professor,  Lord  Suf- 
field,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Ecklinville,  Lord  Grosvenor, 
Mank’s  Codlin,  Pott’s  Seedling,  Cellini,  Stirling  Castle,  Frog- 
more  Prolific,  Hawthornden,  New,  Schoolmaster,  Cox’s  Pomona, 
Lord  Darby,  Prince  Albert,  Striped  Beaufin,  Wellington,  North¬ 
ern  Greening.” 

American  varieties  have  not  been  sufficiently  tested  to  allow 
very  definite  statements  to  be  made.  The  firm  of  Ellwanger  & 


*  “  Fruit  Culture,”  London,  1892,  p.  122. 


Dwarf  Apples. 


345 


Barry,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  has  been  most  energetic  in  growing 
dwarf  apples,  and  the  following  list  given  by  Barry*  is  probably 
the  best  now  available  : 

“  Red  Astrachan,  Large  Sweet  Bough,  Primate,  Beauty  of 
Kent,  Alexander,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Fall  Pippin,  Williams 
Favorite,  Gravenstein,  Hawthornden,  Maiden  Blush,  Porter, 
Menagere,  Red  Beitigheimer,  Bailey  Sweet,  Canada  Reinette, 
Northern  Spy,  Mother,  King  of  Tompkins  County,  Twenty- 
ounce,  Wagener.”  To  this  list  might  also  be  added  Jonathan  and 
Ben  Davis,  both  doing  well  when  dwarfed. 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  EVIDENCE. 

The  evidence  shows  that  dwarf  apple  trees  have  been  so  little 
and  so  carelessly  grown  in  this  state  that  no  definite  evidence  of 
their  value  can  be  obtained.  Nearly  all  writers  and  correspon¬ 
dents  agree  in  saying  that  they  are  unprofitable  for  commercial 
planting,  although  they  are  equally  ready  to  admit  that  the  trees 
may  be  satisfactory  as  single  specimens  or  as  ornaments  in  the 
garden.  It  is  a  general  and  apparently  well  founded  opinion  that 
apples  grown  on  dwarf  trees  are  handsomer  and  of  better  quality 
than  those  grown  upon  standards.  This  suggests  that  dwarf  trees 
may  be  profitably  employed  for  growing  varieties  which  are 
suitable  for  very  fancy  or  dessert  uses.  Dwarf  trees  can  be  easily 
sprayed  and  tended,  and  the  fruit  can  be  carefully  thinned.  They 
may  be  planted  as  close  as  eight  feet  apart  each  way,  although  a 
greater  distance  is  probably  preferable.  A  mature  dwarf  tree, 
which  has  been  well  grown,  may  average  two  or  three  pecks  of 
apples  each  year.  The  Paradise  is  evidently  the  best  stock  to  use, 
but  this  stock  is  not  perfectly  uniform  in  habit  of  growth  or  in  the 
size  which  it  may  attain.  In  short,  the  name  Paradise  belongs 
rather  to  a  class  of  very  dwarf-growing  apple  trees  than  to  any 
single  and  definite  variety.  These  Paradise  stocks  are  grown  from 
layers,  chiefly  in  France  whence  our  nurserymen  obtain  them. 
From  all  the  evidence  which  I  have  been  able  to  collect,  therefore, 
I  cannot  advise  the  planting  of  dwarf  apple  trees  for  commercial 
rewards,  but  it  seems  to  me,  nevertheless,  that  they  are  worth 
experimenting  with  for  this  purpose. 

E.  G.  Lodeman. 


*“  Fruit  Garden,”  New  York,  1890,  p.  362. 


Bulletin  117.  Hay,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THR  UNIVERSITY. 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob 

Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing. 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 

OFFICERS  OF 


Gould  Schurman. 

Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 

THE  STATION. 


I.  P.  Roberts,  - 
E.  L.  Williams,  - 
H.  W.  Smith, 

ASSISTANTS. 

M.  V.  Slingerland, 

Geo.  C.  Watson, 

G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E-  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

E.  J.  Durand,  .... 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 

Entomology. 

Agriculture. 

Chemistry. 

Horticulture. 

Agriculture. 

Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1895. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 1 7.  Fruit  Brevities. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  May  20,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir:  This  bulletin  is  submitted  for  publication  under  the 
Experiment  Station  Extension  Law  (Chapter  437,  laws  of  1896) 
which  appropriates  funds,  “for  the  purpose  of  horticultural 
experiments,  investigations,  instruction  and  information,  in  the 
fifth  judicial  department”  of  the  state,  and  for  “disseminating 
horticultural  knowledge  by  means  of  lectures  or  otherwise.  ”  The 
papers  herein  contained  are  incidents  to  our  main  lines  of  research, 
but  they  seem  to  be  worth  permanent  record.  The  information 
contained  in  the  first  article  is  much  called  for  by  the  fruit-grow¬ 
ers  of  our  district  and  the  apparently  increasing  prevalence  of 
root-galls  on  fruit  trees  is  a  subject  of  much  apprehension.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  remarks  upon  the  treatment  of  winter-injured  trees 
may  be  timely. 


L.  H.  Bailey. 


CONTENTS. 


I  Packing-houses  for  fruit.  (Page  349). — There  are  two  types  of  packing¬ 
houses  for  fruit  in  use  in  western  New  York.  One  is  a  combined 
packing  and  storing  house,  and  an  excellent  example  is  figured  in  cuts 
122  and  123.  The  other  is  a  packing-house  only,  without  cellar,  and  is 
cheaply  built.  A  good  style  of  this  type  of  building  is  shown  in  Figs. 
124  and  125.  These  houses  were  built  for  grape  packing,  but  they  could 
be  easily  adapted  to  other  fruits  The  sorting  and  packing  of  grapes  by 
Keuka  and  Chautauqua  methods  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  126  and  127 
respectively.  The  methods  of  handling  apples  on  a  large  scale  in  sheds, 
are  represented  by  Fig.  129.  The  value  of  these  figures  and  descriptions 
lies  less  in  the  direct  information  which  they  give  than  in  the  emphasis 
which  they  place  upon  the  importance  of  careful  handling  and  packing 
of  fruit. 

II.  History  of  the  Ohio  Raspberry.  (Page  361). — The  Ohio  raspberry  of 
western  New  York,  which  is  the  leading  variety  used  in  the  extensive 
evaporating  industry,  is  not  the  Ohio  Everbearing  of  the  books.  The  lat¬ 
ter  was  the  first  variety  to  introduce  black  raspberry  culture.  It  is  prob¬ 
ably  lost  to  cultivation.  The  present  Ohio  came  into  cultivation  about 
thirty  years  ago,  presumably  coming  from  Ohio. 

III.  The  Mistletoe  Disease  of  the  Blackberry.  (Page  365). — The  account 
describes  an  injury  to  blackberry  canes  caused  by  the  blackberry  psylla 
or  flea-louse.  Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  and  burning  the 
deformed  clusters,  if  they  appear,  are  the  proper  remedies. 

IV.  Root-galls.  (Page  367). — There  is  much  complaint  of  the  presence  of 
root-galls  in  orchards  and  nurseries.  So  far  as  we  know,  these  galls  are 
not  due  to  the  work  of  any  organism.  They  appear  to  be  the  result  of 
some  injury,  or  of  some  untoward  condition  of  the  soil  or  the  treatment. 
When  numerous,  they  may  seriously  interfere  with  the  vitality  of  the  tree. 
Galls  should  be  removed  from  all  trees  before  setting  (Page  375). 

V.  Are  Dewberries  worth  growing  ?  (Page  375). — The  Lucretia  dewberry 
is  earlier  than  the  standard  blackberries,  and  the  fruit  sells  for  a  black¬ 
berry.  If  properly  grown  and  trained  on  stakes  or  a  wire  trellis,  it  is 
capable  of  being  made  a  profitable  fruit. 

VI.  The  Gounii.  (Page  383). — This  bush,  a  native  of  Japan,  is  a  most 
desirable  shrub  for  ornament,  and  its  fruit  is  edible  and  gives  promise 
of  much  usefulness  if  improved  by  cultivation  and  selection. 

VII.  The  Winter  Injuries.  (Page  385). — The  past  winter  was  excessively 
severe  upon  vegetation.  The  injuries  were  no  doubt  augmented  by 
the  unusual  drought  and  the  dryness  of  the  soil.  Suggestions  are  given 
for  the  pruning  and  treatment  of  winter-injured  trees. 

VIII.  Crimson  Clover  for  Orchards.  (Page  392).  The  recent  experience 
shows  that  crimson  clover  is  often  useful  in  orchards,  but  that  we  have 
not  yet  fully  learned  how  to  grow  it  If  sown  in  late  July  or  early 
August  on  a  well  prepared  seed-bed,  it  is  about  as  reliable  as  red  clover. 


I.  PACKING-HOUSES  FOR  FRUIT. 


There  is  much  demand  for  instruction  upon  the  style  of  houses 
which  are  best  suited  for  the  packing  and  handling  of  fruits.  The 
subject  is  one  which  cannot  be  treated  specifically  for  each  grower, 
from  the  fact  that  every  person  has  a  different  ideal,  and  he  may 
grow  fruits  for  a  market  which  demands  particular  treatment  of 
the  products.  The  packing-houses  most  frequently  seen  in  west¬ 
ern  New  York  are  those  used  by  the  grape  men  ;  and  if  one 
studies  the  question,  he  will  find  that  there  are  two  distinct  types 
of  packing-houses  in  use  in  the  grape  regions.  One  type  is  a 


g 

mM — 1 

y  i/a^c 

'm 

RSyiSEr  Pm 

122 — Packing-house  of  George  C.  Snow ,  showing  the  packing-room 

entrance. 

combined  packing  and  storage  house,  and  is  used  very  largely  in 
the  central  lake  region,  where  Catawbas  are  grown  and  where 
the  grapes  are  often  stored  for  some  time  before  they  are  mark¬ 
eted.  The  other  type  of  house  is  that  which  is  used  in  Chautau¬ 
qua  County  and  which  is  simply  a  half-way  station  between  the 


352 


Bulletin  117. 


field  and  the  railway  station, — a  shelter  place  for  the  packing  of 
grapes, — and  is  not  used  for  the  storage  of  the  fruit. 

In  the  lake  region,  as  about  Keuka  and  Seneca  lakes,  the  grape 
interest  developed  at  a  very  early  period,  before  the  market  could 
take  large  quantities  of  fruit,  before  the  Concord  was  known,  and 
the  Catawba  is  still  the  dominant  variety.  This  variety  is  a 
good  keeper  ;  so  it  has  come  that  the  packing- houses  of  this  dis¬ 
trict  are  very  largely  such  as  have  cellars  or  cool  rooms  connected 
with  them,  and  in  these  cellars  the  grapes  may  be  kept  until 
winter  or  even  until  spring.  One  of  the  best  of  this  type  of  pack¬ 
ing-houses  which  I  know  is  that  of  George  C.  Snow,  at  Branch- 
port,  on  Keuka  Lake.  This  house  is  illustrated  in  Figures  122 


123. — Packing -house  of  George  C.  Snow ,  showing  the  basement  entrance. 

and  123.  It  is  built  on  a  side  hill,  and  the  basement  or  cellar  is 
used  for  the  storage  of  grapes,  the  first  floor  is  used  for  packing,  and 
the  second  floor  or  attic  for  the  storage  of  baskets,  crates,  and 
the  like.  This  building  measures  25x60  feet  over  all.  The 
foundation  walls  are  24  inches  thick,  and  the  cellar  is  provided 
with  ample  means  of  ventilation  by  outside  windows,  and  also 
by  means  of  a  chimney  which  runs  from  near  the  middle  of  the 


Fruit  Brevities. 


353 


124.— Packing- house  of  IV.  IV.  Petitt ,  Bracton,  N.  V. 


//  X  Jo 


354 


Bulletin  117. 


cellar  up  through  the  roof.  The  floor  is  of  dirt.  By  means  of 
careful  attention  to  ventilation,  this  cellar  can  be  kept  to  50  de¬ 
grees  or  below  during  September  and  October,  and  is  frost-proof 
during  the  winter.  The  windows  are  provided  with  close-fitting 
screens  to  keep  out  rats  and  squirrels.  This  cellar  will  easily 
hold  fifty  tons  of  grapes  in  the  picking  trays.  The  first  floor  is 
divided  into  two  rooms,  the  front  one  being  a  packing-room  25 
feet  square,  and  the  back  room  being  a  storage  and  shipping  de¬ 
partment  25x35  feet.  This  packing-room  is  provided  with  heat 
and  is  lighted  by  seven  large  windows.  The  floor  above  the  cel¬ 
lar  is  double  and  made  of  1^  inch  matched  pine,  with  an  abun¬ 
dant  air  space  between  the  two  layers.  This,  therefore,  protects 
the  cellar  from  sudden  fluctuations  of  temperature.  The  building 
is  also  shaded,  especially  from  the  afternoon  sun,  by  large  trees. 
This  building  can  be  erected  for  about  $1,200.  It  has  18  foot 
posts,  a  tin  roof,  the  two  rooms  in  the  first  floor  ceiled  with  pine, 
but  the  top  floor  not  ceiled. 

The  requisites  for  keeping  grapes  during  the  winter  are  given  as 
follows  by  Mr.  Snow  in  the  Riiral  New-Yorker  for  Feb.  1,  1896  : 
“Any  good  building  in  which  the  temperature  can  be  held  even  at 
about  35  degrees,  with  ventilation  as  may  be  required,  this  to 
be  determined  by  noting  how  the  fruit  is  keeping,  will  be  found 
available  for  grapes.  No  positive  rules  can  be  laid  down.  A 
cooling  room,  in  which  the  fruit  can  be  first  cooled,  is  a  necessity; 
if  placed  directly  in  cold  storage,  the  temperature  will  be  found 
to  be  raised  rapidly  by  placing  a  quantity  of  warm  fruit  in  the 
room.  As  even  a  temperature  as  possible  is  much  the  best. 
Grapes  should  not  be  packed  in  baskets  for  shipping  before  being 
stored.  They  should  be  ripe,  as  grapes  do  not  mature  after  pick¬ 
ing.  Niagara  or  any  other  variety  can  be  held  only  for  a  limited 
time,  some  varieties  longer  than  others.” 

The  Chautauqua  type  of  packing-house  is  admirably  illus¬ 
trated  by  Figures  124  and  125,  which  are  pictures  of  the  house  of 
W.  W.  Pettit  at  Brocton.  In  this  case  there  is  no  cellar,  for  the 
grapes  are  not  to  remain  in  the  house  more  than  a  day  or  two  at 
the  farthest;  and  they  ordinarily  pass  directly  through  it  on 
their  way  to  the  railway  station.  This  is  a  house  which  can  be 
built  for  about  $500.  The  main  floor  of  the  building  is  24x40 


Fruit  Brevities. 


355 


feet  in  size,  and  aside  from  this  there  is  a  driveway  under  the  same 
roof  and  which  measures  11x30  feet.  This  driveway  connects 
with  the  main  floor  by  two  doors.  The  front  room,  which  is 
lighted  by  four  windows  in  the  front  and  one  upon  the  side  and  is 
12x24  feet  in  size,  is  the  packing-room.  In  the  rear  of  this  is  a 
store-room  for  the  grapes.  The  half- story  above  is  used  for  bask¬ 
ets  and  crates,  and  these  are  delivered  into  the  packing- room  by  a 


126  — Mr.  Snow's  packing -table. 

shute.  This  building  will  accommodate  ten  packers  and  wTill  eas¬ 
ily  handle  the  grapes  from  fifty  acres  of  land.  The  main  floor  is 
ceiled,  but  the  half  story  above  is  unfinished. 

In  the  packing  of  grapes  the  greatest  care  is  required  to  keep 
the  fruit  clean  and  fresh,  to  prevent  the  bunches  from  being 
broken,  and  to  preserve  the  bloom  upon  the  fruit.  It  is  very  es¬ 
sential  that  the  house  should  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  and  sweet 
at  all  times.  It  is  especially  important  that  the  storage  room  for 
the  baskets  and  crates  should  be  dry  and  airy,  in  order  that  the 
baskets  may  not  become  moldy  or  musty  ;  and  this  room  should 


127. — Packing-room  m  Mr.  PetitV s  house. 


Fruit  Brevities. 


357 


also  be  kept  darkened  to  prevent  the  baskets  from  coloring.  Fig¬ 
ure  126  shows  a  packing  table  in  Mr.  Snow’s  packing- room. 
This  is  a  circular  revolving  table  about  which  the  packers  sit. 
The  packer  holds  the  basket  in  her  lap  and  takes  the  grapes  off 
the  table,  which  is  turned  as  fresh  fruit  is  put  upon  it.  Figure 
127  shows  the  packing  room  in  Mr.  Pettit’s  house.  In  this  case, 
the  picking  trays  are  set  before  the  packers  upon  an  inclined  table 
and  the  packer  handles  the  grapes  from  this  tray  into  a  basket 
which  she  places  at  her  left.  When  the  basket  is  filled,  it  is 
placed  upon  a  flat  ledge  in  front  of  her,  and  is  taken  off  by  an 


128. — Packing-house  of  Janies  Austin . 


attendant  who  places  the  baskets  on  a  truck  and  rolls  them  into 
the  back  room,  from  which  they  are  delivered  to  the  wagon. 
When  the  tray  is  empty,  it  is  slid  through  an  opening  just  in  front 
of  the  packer  and  underneath  the  flat  ledge  upon  which  she  places 
her  finished  baskets.  A  quantity  of  empty  baskets  are  kept  upon 
a  shelf  just  above  this  ledge  and  these  are  replenished  by  an  at¬ 
tendant,  as  necessary. 

Another  type  of  packing-house  is  shown  in  Figure  128,  which 
is  a  picture  of  a  peach-house  upon  the  farm  of  James  Austin,  at 
Morton,  N.  Y.  The  illustration  shows  one-half  of  the  house.  In 
the  middle  of  the  house  is  a  driveway  extending  completely 
through  it,  which  is  closed  by  rolling  doors.  The  fruit  from  the 
orchard  is  driven  into  this  driveway,  and  is  unloaded  upon  either 


358 


Bulletin  117. 


side.  The  two  ends  of  the  house  are  opened  by  doors  which  are 
hinged  at  the  top  and  the  packed  fruit  is  delivered  through  these 
doors  or  to  the  wagons  in  the  driveway.  This  is  a  very  convenient 
cheap  type  of  house  which  may  be  used  for  peaches  or  apples  dur¬ 
ing  the  fruit  season,  and  for  the  storage  of  tools  and  barrels  dur¬ 
ing  the  winter. 

There  is  the  greatest  difference  of  opinion  concerning  the  best 
ways  of  handling  apples.  These  differences  arise  very  largely 
from  local  conditions.  If  the  apple  grower  sells  his  crop  to  the 
traveling  buyer  in  the  fall,  he  will  handle  his  fruit  in  the  manner 
which  this  buyer  prescribes.  Ordinarily,  the  fruit  is  handled  from 
the  trees  into  piles,  from  which  the  barrels  are  packed  as  oppor¬ 
tunity  offers.  In  other  cases,  the  apples  are  placed  directly  upon 
a  sorting-table  and  the  barrels  are  filled  immediately.  In  still 
others,  the  apples  are  placed  directly  from  the  picker’s  basket  into 
the  barrel  without  being  sorted.  Every  grower  must  decide  for 
himself  how  he  shall  handle  his  crop.  If  he  desires  to  market 
his  crop  himself  and  to  hold  it  for  some  time,  awaiting  the  move¬ 
ments  of  the  market,  he  will  find  it  essential  to  have  some  tem¬ 
porary  storage  place  for  his  fruit.  For  myself,  I  am  convinced 
that  apples  can  generally  be  packed  better  and  will  keep  longer  if 
they  are  stored  for  a  time  after  they  are  picked,  in  a  cool  building. 
This  will  allow  the  natural  sweating  process  and  the  shrinkage  to 
take  place,  all  the  inferior  fruit  will  show  its  blemishes,  and  the 
apples  can  be  packed  at  leisure.  If  it  should  happen  that  the 
market  will  not  pay  for  the  handling  of  the  fruit  in  barrels,  it  is 
in  convenient  shape  for  selling  in  bulk  or  for  use  in  evaporators. 
Figure  129  shows  a  storage  house  for  apples  upon  the  fruit  farm 
of  T.  G-  Yeomans  &  Sons,  of  Walworth,  Wayne  County,  N.  Y. 
In  this  case  the  apples  are  picked  in  bushel  baskets,  and  from 
these  baskets  they  are  turned  into  bins  in  a  shed  which  has  an 
open  front.  In  these  apple  sheds  it  is  important  that  the  roof  be 
well  shaded  in  order  to  keep  the  building  cool  ;  or  if  that  cannot 
be  done,  then  there  should  be  a  story  or  half  story  above  the 
apples  to  keep  the  heat  of  the  sun  from  the  storage  room. 

I  have  been  so  much  pleased  with  the  thorough  and  systematic 
way  in  which  the  Yeomanses  handle  their  fruits,  that  I  have 
asked  Mr.  T.  T.  Yeomans  to  give  me  an  account  of  their  practice 


129. — Packing-shed  of  T.  G.  Yeoman's  &  Sons 


360 


Bulletin  117. 


and  which  now  follows  :  “  We  long  ago  found  that  it  economized 
labor  in  the  hurry  of  the  gathering  season,  if  we  could  put  our 
apples  under  cover,  where  we  could  keep  them  much  later  than 
in  the  open  orchard,  and  could  work  on  rainy  or  very  cold  days, 
thus  prolonging  the  season,  for  both  the  workman  and  ourselves, 
at  the  time  when  it  is  most  difficult  to  secure  plenty  of  help.  We 
think  it  a  great  advantage,  when  it  is  desired  to  keep  apples  late, 
that  they  be  packed  in  the  barrels  as  late  as  possible.  Allow 
them  to  sweat  in  the  pile  rather  than  in  the  barrel,  and  any  which 
are  disposed  to  -decay  early  will  have  begun  to  show  signs  of  decay 
and  can  be  thrown  out.  The  weather  is  also  colder  than  when 
they  are  picked  from  the  tree,  especially  where  one  has  large 
orchards  and  must  begin  picking  as  early  as  possible. 

*  ‘  In  gathering  quinces  and  pears,  we  send  all  the  packing  force 
to  the  orchard  during  the  latter  part  of  the  day,  and  by  spreading 
the  fruit  thinly,  on  a  little  clean  straw  on  the  ground  under  the 
open  shed,  they  become  cooled  during  the  night,  and  are  in  good 
condition  for  putting  up  the  next  morning  ;  when,  if  left  on  the 
trees,  they  would  be  so  wet  from  the  dew  that  we  could  rarely 
pick  them  until  they  had  become  warmed  by  the  sun  and  in  an 
undesirable  condition  for  packing. 

“  For  a  packing- house,  we  prefer  on  open  shed,  opening  to  the 
east,  adjacent  to  a  building  in  which  the  barrels  can  be  stored. 
These  barrels  should  have  one  head  nailed  and  marked  with  the 
grower’s  brand,  and  the  other  taken  out  and  placed  in  the  open 
barrel  before  passing  it  out  into  the  shed  for  filling.  We  use  a 
ground  floor  covered  with  a  little  clean  straw.  Our  shed  is  20 
feet  in  depth,  in  bents  of  14  feet.  Planks  2x10  or  12  inches  are 
placed  across  the  front  from  post  to  post  as  desired  when  filling, 
and  are  readily  taken  out  as  the  packing  progresses.  When  fill¬ 
ing  with  apples,  we  use  a  plank  for  the  man  to  walk  on  as  he 
carries  the  fruit  to  the  back  of  the  shed.  The  empty  barrels  are 
set  on  one  or  more  planks,  which  are  not  quite  as  wide  as  the 
head  of  the  barrels,  where  one  person  faces  the  bottom  (which  is 
to  be  the  head),  by  placing  the  first  course  of  fruit ;  the  same 
person  empties  the  half  bushel  round  baskets  (in  which  we  sort 
all  of  the  No.  1)  into  the  barrels  in  order  as  they  stand  on  the 
plank,  giving  the  barrel  a  vigorous  shake  for  every  basket,  while 


Fruit  Brevities. 


361 


the  packers  work  constantly  sorting  from  the  piles,  the  apples 
rolling  down  to  them.  These  half-bushel  baskets  should  be  of  such 
shape  and  size  that  they  can  be  readily  turned  over  in  the  barrel  in 
emptying,  to  avoid  bruising  the  fruit  as  is  done  when  poured  into  the 
barrel.  All  rejected  fruit  is  put  into  bushel  baskets  and  taken  away. 
Each  sorter  uses  a  separate  basket,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  detect  poor 
work  when  the  baskets  are  emptied  into  the  barrel.  One  man 
heads,  nails  and  rolls  out  the  barrels  ;  another  faces,  and  empties 
baskets.  As  far  as  possible,  each  person  has  his  particular  kind  of 
work,  and,  if  not  satisfactorily  done,  the  responsibility  is  readily 
located.  We  expect  to  pack  our  apples  early  in  November.  The 
first  heads  of  the  barrels  are  nailed  on  rainy  days  during  the  sum¬ 
mer  or  early  fall.  When  the  barrels  are  packed,  they  are  piled 
up  outdoors,  and  if  weather  is  dry,  we  sprinkle  them  thoroughly 
to  prevent  the  barrel  from  absorbing  the  moisture  of  the  fruit, 
thereby  causing  it  to  shrink  and  to  rattle  in  the  barrel. 

“  It  is  important  that  the  quality  shall  be  the  same  all  through 
the  barrel,  and,-  as  far  as  possible,  that  one  barrel  shall  be  a  fair 
sample  of  a  car  load  or  more.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  all 
the  stages  of  gathering  and  packing  never  to  needlessly  bruise  the 
fruit.  For  picking,  which  for  winter  apples  begins  about  October 
1st,  each  man  uses  a  half-bushel  handle  basket,  which  he  empties 
when  filled  into  one  holding  one  and  one-fourth  bushels,  by  cap¬ 
ping  the  latter  over  the  former  and  inverting  to  avoid  bruising  in 
emptying  the  first  basket.  We  use  these  bushel  baskets  in  which 
to  draw  all  of  our  fruit  to  the  packing-house,  drawing  forty-six  at 
a  load,  as  illustrated.  The  wagon  is  a  broad  tire  half-truck,  with 
springs  which  raise  the  rack  only  about  four  inches  above  the 
bolster,  and  carries  4500  pounds.  When  shipping,  we  draw  20 

barrels  on  end  on  such  a  rack.” 

\ 

II.  HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  RASPBERRY. 

Confusion  has  arisen  concerning  the  history  of  the  Ohio  rasp¬ 
berry  which  is  so  extensively  grown  in  New  York  for  the 
evaporating  industry  (see  Bulletin  100),  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  Ohio  raspberry  of  the  books  is  a  distinct  variety.  The  history 


362 


Bulletin  117. 


of  this  Ohio  raspberry  of  New  York  is  given  in  the  report  of  the 
Iowa  Horticultural  Society  for  1886  (page  88),  but  some  of  the 
details  seem  to  be  inaccurate.  I  now  put  on  record  the  true 
history  of  this  invaluable  berry,  as  written  for  me  by  Dr.  H.  P. 
VanDusen,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. : 

‘  ‘  Some  where  in  the  sixties,  my  grandfather,  Hiram  VanDusen, 
of  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  bought  a  lot  of  Doolittle  plants  of  Mr. 
Purdy,  of  same  place,  enough  to  plant  something  less  than  an 
acre.  When  these  plants  were  getting  old  and  nearly  worthless, 
he  discovered  a  plant  which  was  apparently  as  good  as  new.  He 
also  knew  from  previous  observation  that  it  ripened  later,  was 
firmer  and  always  loaded.  He  took  pains  to  get  tips  down,  and 
secured  a  few  plants,  and  from  these  still  more,  until  he  had  two 

* 

rows  a  few  rods  long.  At  this  time,  my  father  bought  this  stock  of 
him,  and  my  father  and  myself  increased  the  stock  rapidly.  We 
had  also  Mammoth  Cluster,  Seneca  Black  Cap,  Doolittle  and 
others.  Its  value  was  more  and  more  impressed  upon  us  until 
about  1876,  when  I  sent  out  a  circular  offering  plants  for  sale. 
The  circular  increased  in  size  from  year  to  year,  and  in  1882  or 
1883  I  received  orders  for  more  than  a  million  plants,  nearly  three 
times  the  stock  I  had  on  hand.  The  Doolittle  plants  amongst 
which  this  variety  was  found,  came  from  Ohio,  and  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Doolittle,  grandfather  called  it  the  Ohio.  Some  years 
later  another  berry  under  the  name  of  Ohio  came  to  our  notice, 
but  it  was  worthless  and  never  came  into  general  cultivation.” 

Mr.  A.  M.  Purdy,  of  whom  the  stock  of  Doolittle  plants  was 
obtained,  writes  me  that  this  Ohio  raspberry  which  the  eldest 
VanDusen  propagated  was  “precisely  identical  with  what  I 
grew  at  that  time  as  the  Miami,  obtained  from  Ohio,  and  it  was 
so  decided  by  John  J.  Thomas  and  Patrick  Barry,  who  saw  them 
on  my  grounds.” 

All  the  true  Ohio  raspberry  which  is  now  grown  in  western 
New  York  seems  to  have  come  from  this  VanDusen  stock,  and 
the  variety  is  now  widely  distributed  in  other  states.  Mr.  T.  T. 
Yeomans  gives  me  the  following  note  : 

‘  ‘  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  the  Ohios ;  one  is  a  dead 
black  berry,  more  prolific  and  sweeter,  and  the  plant  a  stronger 
grower  ;  the  other  a  firm  berry,  and  slightly  reddish.  The 


Fruit  Brevities.  363 

latter  is  much  more  common  here.  The  former  is  by  some 
supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Johnston’s  Sweet.” 

The  Ohio  Everbearing  raspberry  of  the  books,  with  which  this 
New  York  Ohio  has  been  comfounded,  is  probably  no  longer  in 
cultivation.  It  will  be  worth  our  while  to  inquire  into  its  history, 
however,  for  we  shall  thereby  recall  how  recently  it  was  that  the 
wild  raspberry  began  to  be  impressed  into  cultivation.  This 
Ohio  Everbearing,  or  Monthly  Black-Cap,  was,  so  far  as  I  know, 
the  very  first  cultivated  native  black  raspberry.  It  was  brought  to 
notice  by  Nicholas  Eongworth  of  Cincinnati,  to  whose  enlightened 
and  prophetic  efforts  American  fruit-growing  owes  so  much,  par¬ 
ticularly  in  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  and  strawberry.  The 
earliest  record  of  the  variety  seems  to  have  been  made  in  the 
Genesee  Farmer ,  but  I  know  this  reference  only  by  the  following 
entry  in  Hovey’s  Magazine  of  Horticulture ,  1837,  page  154  : 

“  Everbearing  Raspberry. — The  Genesee  Farmer  states  that  a 
new  kind  of  raspberry  has  been  found  in  New  York  state,  near 
Take  Erie,  by  the  Shakers  residing  there,  and  that  it  produces 
its  fruit  throughout  the  summer  and  autumn.  It  is  also  stated  to 
be  really  a  valuable  variety,  and  worthy  of  extensive  cultivation. 
The  fruit  in  appearance  is  longer  than  the  wild  black  raspberry, 
and  approaches  near,  in  size  and  excellence,  to  the  White 
Antwerp,  but  is  not  so  high  flavored.  The  habit  of  growth  is 
somewhat  similar  to  the  common  purple  raspberry,  the  shoots  of 
which  are  very  vigorous,  bending  over  and  touching  the  ground, 
and  take  root,  by  which  mode  it  is  rapidly  increased.  Its  mode 
of  producing  its  fruit  is  as  follows  :  In  the  spring  the  old  shoots 
throw  out  their  new  branches,  as  in  other  sorts  upon  which  the 
first  crop  appears,  but  soon  the  new  shoots  begin  to  grow,  and 
when  they  have  attained  a  good  size,  which  is  generally  just 
before  the  first  crop  is  gone,  they  produce  the  second  crop  :  to 
this  latter  circumstance  it  owes  its  name,  and  its  peculiarity.  The 
fruit  of  the  second  crop  is  considered  the  best.  It  is  grown  by 
Mr.  Eongworth,  of  Cincinnati,  and  by  the  Shakers  near  Eebanon, 
but  has  not  yet  found  its  way  into  any  of  our  Atlantic  cities.” 

The  next  account  I  find  of  this  berry  is  in  the  Magazme  of 
Horticulture  for  1842  : 

“  The  Ever  bearing  Raspberry. — In  our  Vol.  III.,  p.  154,  under 


364 


Bulletin  117. 


our  Miscellaneous  Notices,  we  gave  an  account  [quoted  above] 
of  this  fruit  which  had  then  just  been  brought  into  notice  :  since 
then,  we  have  heard  very  little  of  it  till  the  past  year.  It  is  now 
attracting  more  attention,  and  as  it  is  deemed  a  valuable  acquisi¬ 
tion,  we  have  copied  a  further  description  of  it  below,  which  we 
find  in  the  American  Agriculturist : — 

“  The  Ohio  Bver-bearing  raspberry  was  first  discovered  some 
fifteen  years  ago,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  near  Lake 
Brie,  but  in  what  particular  part  is  unknown.  Mr.  Longworth, 
of  Cincinnati,  introduced  it  into  his  garden  in  1832,  at  which 
period  he  was  driven  into  the  back  country  by  the  cholera,  where 
he  found  it  growing.  It  has  been  little  known,  however,  in  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  until  within  the  last  two  years,  but  there  is  now  great 
effort  made  by  the  gardeners  to  cultivate  it  for  the  market  of 
that  city.  The  fruit  resembles  the  wild  native  raspberry,  but  is 
much  larger,  more  fleshy,  and  of  a  much  finer  flavor,  and  is 
always  a  very  profuse  bearer.  In  Cincinnati,  the  wood  of  the 
previous  year  bears  one  crop  in  June,  after  which  it  soon  dies; 
the  young  shoots  then  come  into  bearing,  and  continue  doing  so 
into  October,  till  the  frost  cuts  them  off,  when  may  be  seen  buds 
and  blossoms,  and  the  fruit  in  every  stage  from  green  up  to  full 
ripe,  on  the  bush,  stayed  by  the  hand  of  nature  in  the  midst  of 
their  productiveness.  The  fruit  is  preferred  by  many  to  the  red 
Antwerp,  and  with  its  large  erect  clusters  of  flowers,  presents  a 
beautiful  appearance. 

“  Mr.  Longworth,  in  a  communication  describing  this  fruit,  in 
the  Gardener' s  Magazine ,  states  that  the  plants,  in  light  dry 
soils,  are  not  very  productive  in  the  autumn  crop  ;  but  if  grown 
on  a  stiff  loam,  on  a  clayey  subsoil,  bear  profusely  till  destroyed 
by  frost.  From  all  that  has  been  said  in  relation  to  it,  it  appears 
a  desirable  fruit,  and  we  hope  soon  to  test  its  qualities  our¬ 
selves.” 

One  is  not  quite  sure,  after  reading  the  above  extracts,  whether 
this  variety  came  from  New  York  or  Ohio.  It  is  first  said  that 
the  plant  was  “  found  in  New  York  [state,  near  Lake  Brie,”  but 
it  was  growing  only  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  Longworth  and  with 
the  Shakers  at  Lebanon,  which  is  thirty  miles  from  Cincinnati. 
In  the  second  extract  it  is  said  that  the  plant  was  found  ‘  ‘  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state,”  but  the  name  of  the  state  is  not  men- 


Fruit  Brevities. 


365 


tioned.  All  doubts  are  set  at  rest,  however,  if  one  consults 
Fongworth’ s  own  account  of  the  berry  in  the  Gardener' s  Maga¬ 
zine  of  London,  to  which  reference  is  made  in  the  second  article 
quoted  above.  Dating  his  communication  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
Sept.  30,  1841,  Mr.  Fongworth  says:  “When  driven  into  the 
interior  of  the  state  by  the  cholera,  in  September  and  October 
of  1832,  I  found  a  raspberry  in  full  bearing,  a  native  of  our  state, 
and  the  only  ever- bearing  raspberry  I  have  ever  met  with.” 
Fongworth  moved  to  Cincinnati  about  1804  and  lived  there 
until  his  death,  in  1863.  In  this  letter  to  the  London  periodical, 
Fongworth  expresses  the  belief  that  this  raspberry  would  succeed 
in  England,  and  he  sent  plants  of  it  there  by  James  Howarth, 
who  went  to  the  old  country  “to  purchase  plants.”  The  editor 
of  the  magazine  adds  a  note  that  ‘  ‘  plants  of  this  raspberry  are  in 
a  London  nursery,  but  none  of  them  will  be  sold  till  the  worth 
of  the  variety  is  tested.” 

Indigenous  raspberry  growing  began  with  this  Ohio  Everbear¬ 
ing  variety ;  but  the  contemporaneous  Ohio  has  no  connection 
with  this  historical  berry  save  an  accidental  similarity  of  name. 

III.  THE  “MISTLETOE  DISEASE”  OF  THE 

blackberry. 

During  the  last  fall,  we  were  asked  about  a  curious  disease  or 
malformation  of  blackberry  canes  by  a  fruit-grower  in  Delaware, 
which  is  known  locally  as  the  “  mistletoe  disease,”  because  of  the 
mistletoe-like  bunches  of  foliage.  We  asked  for  specimens, 
which,  upon  examination  showed  the  work  of  a  psylla-like  insect 
known  as  the  “  Bramble  Flea-louse.”  This  disease  has  long  been 
known  in  New  Jersey,  and  is  also  reported  from  New  York.  It 
therefore  seems  to  be  desirable  to  mention  and  illustrate  the  dis¬ 
ease  so  that  our  own  berry  growers  may  recognize  it,  if  it  should 
invade  their  plantations.  Our  Delaware  correspondent  writes 
that  the  disease  is  ‘  ‘  found  on  Early  Harvest,  Erie,  Taylor, 
Minnewaski,  and  several  other  blackberries,  but  not  much  on  the 
Wilson.  I  notice  it  most  on  neglected  patches  and  on  poor  land.” 

Professor  F.  W.  Card,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  to  whom 
I  mentioned  the  disease,  gives  me  the  following  references  to  it : 
Bulletin  45,  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  p.  209;  American  Ento¬ 
mologist,  i.  225,  iii.  62  ;  Illinois  Entomological  Report,  viii.  17  ; 


130. — “ Mistletoe ”  of  the  blackberry. 

in  1869  and  for  several  years  after.  The  insect  is  said  to  be  common 
on  pine  trees  from  Florida  to  Canada.  There  are  said  to  be  at  least 
two  generations  annually.  I  do  not  know  how  it  winters.  It  is 
recommended  to  cut  out  and  burn  all  the  infested  tips  as  soon  as 
discovered.  Doutless  much  of  the  curling  of  the  leaves  is  also 
due  to  the  psylla,  but  a  plant- house  (species  unknown)  had  also 
contributed  to  this  injury.” 

This  insect  is  sometimes  called  Psylla  rubi  and  Psylla  tripunc - 
lata.  Thorough  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  before  the 
injury  has  been  wrought  will  probably  keep  the  psylla  in  check  ; 


Bulletin  117. 


Strong,  Fruit  Culture,  3d  ed.  179  ;  Saunders,  Insects  Injurious 
to  Fruit  320. 

The  specimens  were  referred  to  Mr.  Slingerland  who  reports  as 
follows  :  “  The  curling  of  the  shoot  is  casued  by  a  psylla  known 

as  the  blackberry  flea-louse  (fTrioza  tripiinctata) .  The  insect  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  Fitch  in  1851,  and  was  common  in  New  Jersey 


Fruit  Brevities. 


367 


but  inordinary  attacks  the  collecting  and  burning  of  the  deformed 
clusters  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  apparent  will  be  sufficient  to 
check  the  trouble. 


IV.  ROOT-GAkLS. 

We  have  many  inquiries  respecting  galls  upon  the  roots  of 
various  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  These  galls  are  irregular  swellings 
or  excrescences  upon  the  roots  or  upon  the  main  stem  just  below 
the  ground,  ranging  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  one’s  fist,  or 


’131. — Root-galls  upon  apple  trees  from  a  nursery. 

even  to  several  inches  in  diameter  upon  large  trees.  They  are 
best  known  upon  nursery  stock,  because  the  roots  of  the  tree  are 
exposed  for  observation.  Specimens  of  affected  apple  roots  are 
shown  in  Fig.  13 1.  The  galls  are  probably  common  upon  old 
trees,  however.  In  our  Bulletin  74  (“Impressions  of  the  Peach 
Industry  in  Western  New  York”),  I  made  a  discussion  and 
illustration  of  galls  taken  from  large  peach  trees.  Since  that  time, 
one  pear  grower  has  complained  to  us  that  his  young  standard 
orchard  is  gradually  failing  and  that  the  difficulty  seems  to  be 
the  abundance  of  galls  which  he  finds  upon  the  roots. 


368 


Bulletin  117. 


Unfortunately,  the  cause  of  these  galls  is  unknown,  and  it  is 
also  uncertain  as  to  just  how  much  damage  they  do.  They  seem 
to  be  widely  spread  in  many  countries,  and  they  are  known  to  be 
abundant  in  some  of  the  nurseries  of  New  York  state.  No  one 
has  ever  been  able  to  discover  any  insect  or  fungus  which  seems 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  mischief.*  We  are  now  making  experi¬ 
ments  with  the  affection  ;  but  in  the  meantime  we  desire  to  give 
our  fruit-growers  the  latest  information  which  we  possess  on  the 
subject,  because  the  extent  of  the  injury  in  this  state  seems  to 
demand  that  the  attention  of  every  tree-planter  should  be  drawn 
to  it.  We  always  advise  that  trees  with  galls  shall  not  be  planted; 
or  if  they  are  planted,  that  all  galls  should  be  removed.  We  do  not 
know  if  the  trouble  is  communicable  from  tree  to  tree,  but  the 
fact  that  great  numbers  of  trees  sometimes  become  infested  in  the 
nursery  rows,  seems  to  show  that  it  may  spread  from  to  tree. 
However,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  German  authorities  upon 
plant  diseases,  Sorauer,  thinks  that  these  galls  are  simply  abnor¬ 
mal  deposits  of  woody  tissue  consequent  upon  the  abrupt  bending 
or  injury  of  the  roots  when  the  trees  are  planted.  A  portion  of 
his  account  is  here  translated  (Sorauer,  “Handbuch  der  Pflanzen- 
krankheiten,”  1886,  p.  737): 

‘  ‘  These  swellings  have  been  seen  by  me  mostly  upon  apples 
and  pears.  They  appear  generally  at  the  crown  of  the  roots  of 
young  trees,  the  enlargements  having  the  size  of  hazel  nuts  or 
walnuts.  In  older  specimens  they  may  attain  the  size  of  one’s 
fist.  Their  appearance  upon  the  younger  nursery  stock  is 
generally  limited  to  the  crown,  but  not  unfrequently  they  are 
found  lying  deeper  in  the  earth,  or  even  upon  slender  one-year- 
old  roots.  In  older  trees  they  are  much  less  frequent  The 
swellings  have  been  found  only  upon  those  roots  which  lie  near 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  In  those  cases  in  which  the  galls  have 
attained  considerable  size,  a  decreased  growth  of  the  branches  of 
the  trees  may  be  noticed.  Apparently,  the  gall  absorbs  so  large 
a  part  of  the  nourishing  material  that  the  branches  suffer.  An 
unfavorable  effect  of  these  galls  upon  the  roots  appears  to  be  a 
decreased  development  of  small  fibrous  roots.  This  is  especially 
noticeable  in  older  trees. 

*The  root-knot  of  the  southern  states  and  of  greenhouses  is  a  wholly  differ¬ 
ent  trouble  and  is  the  work  of  a  nematode  worm.  There  is  also  a  root 
swelling  or  gall  on  raspberries  due  to  the  work  of  an  insect. 


Fruit  Brevities. 


369 


“  The  color  of  the  gall  is  similar  in  its  younger  stages  to  that 
of  the  sound  root.  L,ater,  a  darker  color  appears,  in  consequence 
of  a  deposit  of  dead  material  which  forms  the  bark  of  the  gall. 

„  If  one  examines  the  galls  which  are  produced  upon  the  smaller 
roots,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  generally  located  upon  one 
side  of  the  root  body  ;  that  they  have  a  softer  tissue  than  the 
root,  but  that  their  color  within  is  perfectly  normal ;  and  that 
they  also  possess  an  equal  amount  of  starch.  The  large  galls 
are  composed  of  hemispherical  growths  which  are  superposed  upon 
each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  the  surface  has  a  very  irregular 
granular  and  warty  appearance.  In  the  springtime  the  more 
prominent  of  these  elevations  possess  a  light  brown  appearance 
and  a  perfectly  herbaceous  consistence.  .  .  A  cross-section  of  the 
gall  shows  an  irregular  fibrous  mass.  In  the  smallest  swellings 
on  the  most  slender  roots,  there  may  be  recognized  a  small  dead 
portion  in  the  center,  and  it  is  also  the  case  in  large  roots  that  a 
properly  made  cut  will  show  that  the  swelling  originated  from 
an  injury  to  the  woody  cylinder  of  the  root  during  the  first  year 
of  its  existence.  The  injury  may  consist  of  a  small  crack  which 
extends  from  the  outside  to  the  center  of  the  root  at  the  time 
when  the  latter  was  small,  or  the  root  during  its  first  year  may 
have  been  torn  and  thereupon  a  callus  appeared  over  the  wounded 
surface  and  this  callus  eventually  developed  into  a  root  gall. 
The  manner  in  which  the  first  cracks  appear  has  not  been  clearly 
shown,  but  certain  indications  lead  to  the  belief  that  they  may  be 
caused  by  extremes  of  expansion  and  contraction.  There  may  be 
frequently  found  wedge-shaped  bodies  of  parenchymatous  tissue 
in  the  rings  formed  during  the  first  and  second  years’  growth  of 
the  root.  These  bodies  (which  may  have  the  power  of  forming  ad¬ 
ventitious  buds)  must  show  fairly  deep  crevices  by  the  alternate 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  tissues.  The  circumstance  that 
such  parenchymatous  wedges  may  also  appear  upon  uninjured 
roots  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  root-gall  may  also  arise  with¬ 
out  injury  to  the  roots,  but  this  is  always  a  more  rare  case. 

“  I  therefore  consider  the  root-gall  as  a  swelling  which  appears 
either  upon  the  body  of  the  root,  or  at  the  crown,  but  which  is 
not  caused  by  the  action  of  any  parasite.  In  the  decayed  surface 
tissues  of  the  galls,  many  organisms  may  be  found ;  but  in  the 
sound  tissues  I  have  been  unable  to  discover  any  parasite.  I  have 


370 


Bulletin  117. 


also  looked  in  vain  for  a  form  of  plasmodium.  They  appear  to 
be  caused  merely  by  an  abnormal  flow  of  sap.  Instead  of  the  unin¬ 
terrupted  return,  to  the  ends  of  the  roots,  of  the  sap  which  has 
been  modified  by  the  stems  above  ground,  it  finds  a  constric¬ 
tion.  This  may  be  due  to  an  injury  of  the  root,  or  to  its  having 
been  bent  at  an  acute  angle.  In  such  places  the  accumulation  of 
nourishing  sap  leads  to  the  excessive  growth  which  appears  to 
consist  of  a  rich  callus  over  the  places  of  injury,  and  in  the  case 
of  bent  roots,  the  growth  appears  to  be  an  abnormal  development 
of  tissues  of  wood  and  bark.  The  younger  the  root  is,  which  has 
been  bent,  the  more  easily  the  crevices  may  appear  which  lead  to 
the  formation  of  the  above  mentioned  parenchymatous  wedges ; 
an  expansion,  of  the  medullary  sheath  may  occur,  and  the 
formation  of  adventitious  buds  be  induced  ...  I  have  fre¬ 
quently  found  woody  bodies  entirely  isolated  from  the  woody 
cylinder  of  the  branches  of  various  trees,  especially  in  apples  and 
in  conifers.  These  bodies  were  buried  in  the  tissues  of  the  bark. 
Adventitious  buds  may  be  formed  easily  upon  the  roots  of  apples 
and  pears  since  root  cuttings  of  these  plants  will  frequently  pro¬ 
duce  shoots.  Such  shoots  may  also  be  found  upon  the  more 
horizontal-growing  roots  of  these  trees,  even  when  they  are  not 
separated  from  the  parent  plant. 

“  The  formation  of  root-galls,  therefore,  does  not  appear  to  me 
more  strange  than  similar  swellings  which  are  so  commonly  seen 
above  ground.  At  first  thought,  it  would  seem  strange  that  these 
root  swellings  should  appear  so  much  more  frequently  in  certain 
nurseries.  The  prevalence  of  the  attacks  and  the  season  of  their 
appearance  seem  to  indicate  a  parasitic  origin,  but  I  have  been 
unable  to  find  any  plants  or  animals  to  which  the  trouble  may  be 
ascribed.  The  examination  of  many  seedlings  from  nurseries 
upon  which  root-galls  had  been  commonly  observed  lead  me  to 
what  I  believe  to  be  the  true  explanation  of  this  disease,  which 
has  appeared  during  recent  years  in  so  many  different  localities. 
Specimens  of  diseased  and  healthy  roots  which  were  taken  from 
the  upper  part  of  the  root  system  show  that  they  have  been  well 
nourished  and  also  that  they  bear  many  sharp  angles,  which,  in 
some  cases,  have  led  to  the  growing  together  of  roots  that  have  been 
closely  pressed  together.  In  other  cases,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
early  root  system  was  cut  back  closely  and  a  great  many  side 


Fruit  Brevities. 


37i 


roots  have  been  produced  near  the  cut  surfaces.  Since  the  young 
plants,  in  a  vast  majority  of  cases,  show  by  their  root  systems 
that  they  have  been  well  nourished,  it  may  well  follow  that  this 
good  nourishment  is  also  favorable  to  the  formation  of  root-galls. 
The  disturbing  influence  may  be  ascribed  either  to  the  short  cut¬ 
ting  of  the  roots,  or  to  the  bending  of  the  roots  when  the  plants 
were  set  into  the  ground.  If  one  watches  the  practices  of  the 
workman  in  transplanting  seedlings  in  nurseries,  an  explanation 
for  these  crooked  roots  may  be  very  easily  found  ;  frequently  the 
holes  are  too  shallow  to  receive  the  deeper  roots  of  the  plants. 
The  plant  is  therefore  pressed  into  the  soil  so  that  the  trunk  may 
be  set  at  the  desired  depth,  and  many  of  the  roots  are  more  or  less 
seriously  bent.  If,  at  the  same  time,  the  roots  are  pressed  in  a  hori¬ 
zontal  direction,  or  if  they  are  bent  upon  a  large  curve,  this  shallow 
method  of  planting  is  not  followed  by  any  serious  consequences. 
The  steady  return  flow  of  the  nourishing  sap  should  thereby  be 
diverted  toward  a  more  free  production  of  side  roots,  especially 
from  the  main  roots  which  have  been  but  moderately  bent ;  but  in 
case  the  plant  has  been  pressed  into  the  soil  so  that  the  root  makes 
a  short  and  sharp  turn,  then  the  flow  is  so  great  that  an  abnormal 
deposit  of  material  may  easily  induce  the  formation  of  root-galls. 

“  It  is,  therefore,  just  these  improved  methods  of  culture,  the 
fertilizing  and  cultivation  of  the  soil  used  for  nursery  purposes, 
and  the  methods  which  nurserymen  have  of  growing  seedlings 
rapidly  (because  in  this  manner  stronger  trees  are  produced), 
which  bring  about  the  conditions  under  which  the  root-gall  is 
found. 

‘  *  The  experiment  should  be  made  of  growing  stock  after  it  has 
been  pruned  in  various  ways,  and  with  different  methods  of  trans¬ 
planting.” 

It  seems  to  have  been  generally  assumed  that  this  root- gall  is 
a  specific  disease  and  due  to  some  fungous  parasite,  and  upon 
this  assumption  various  fungicidal  dressings  of  the  roots  have 
been  advised  (see,  for  example,  Bulletin  74).  The  only  actual 
experiments  which  I  know  to  have  been  reported,  in  this  country, 
are  by  W.  E.  Smith,  Napa,  California,  and  W.  A.  Yates, 
Brenham,  Texas.  Mr.  Smith  presented  his  results  before  a 
recent  meeting  of  the  Fruit  Growers’  Convention.  I  reprint  the 
paper  as  it  was  published  in  the  California  Fruit  Grower  (Dec. 
15,  1894,  p.  481)^ 


372 


Bulletin  117. 


“  The  principal  damage  from  root-knot  appears  to  occur  only 
when  the  knots  approach  the  crown  of  the  root ;  when  they 
encircle  the  crown  of  the  root  the  tree  is  hardly  worth  saving. 
Hence,  where  root-knots  exist  they  should  be  destroyed  early,  at 
least  before  they  encompass  the  root  crown. 

“  Methods  of  Work. — As  to  the  method  of  the  work  I  will  say, 
that  as  fast  as  the  knots  were  uncovered  by  the  man  with  shovel 
and  trowel,  I  followed  with  brace  and  bit  and  a  large  bottle  of 
concentrated  solution  of  bluestone  [sulphate  of  copper].  In  the 
cork  of  the  bottle  a  quill  is  fixed  to  guide  the  fluid  easily  into  the 
bored  holes.  After  two  days’  work  the  method  of  treatment  was 
modified. 

“  A  Phenomenon. — A  curious  and  interesting  thing  occurred. 
I  noticed  that  the  leaves  on  certain  branches  of  trees  treated  the 
first  day  had  turned  very  dark,  with  a  sort  of  coppery  tint  which 
was  very  noticeable.  The  leaves  dried  up  shortly  and  fell  off, 
leaving  the  branches  naked,  while  other  branches  on  the  same 
tree  retained  their  green  leaves.  Not  one  tree  only,  but  a  score 
of  them  were  showing  this  strange  effect  of  the  cupric  solution. 
With  those  dead,  copper-hued  leaves  before  my  eyes,  there  was 
little  room  for  doubting  that  the  cupric  fluid  had  thus  quickly 
entered  into  the  circulation  of  the  tree.  It  must  have  done  so  to 
produce  the  effect  observed.  And  it  must  have  gone  up  at  a 
season  when  we  speak  of  the  sap  as  going  down.  I  was  a  little 
scared  at  this  phenomenon  and  modified  my  treatment  by  strik¬ 
ing  off  the  knots  and  puncturing  the  diseased  wood,  especially  the 
core  of  the  knot,  with  a  sharp,  pointed  iron,  then  applying  the 
cupric  solution  with  a  swab,  in  this  way  avoiding  a  too  excessive 
quantity  of  the  fluid  penetrating  the  fiber  of  the  tree.  However, 
in  the  light  of  future  events,  there  seemed  to  be  no  need  of  this 
precaution.  The  trees  thus  curiously,  and,  it  would  seem  serious¬ 
ly  affected,  were  all  right  in  bud,  leaf,  blossom  and  fruit  in  the 
spring  and  summer  following.  They  have  shown  no  signs  of 
injury  since,  but  on  the  contrary  seem  to  have  taken  on  a  health¬ 
ier  tone  than  the  other  trees,  so  that  I  now  believe  the  treatment 
by  boring  is  perfectly  safe,  if  done  in  September  or  October.  I 
could  not  vouch  for  it  at  other  seasons  of  the  year. 

“Final  Results. — After  two  years,  not  one  of  the  200  trees  has 
died.  Every  tree  treated  was  marked  by  tying  a  strip  of  cotton 


Fruit  Brevities 


373- 


cloth  on  a  south  side  branch  next  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  These 
marks  still  remain.  Only  last  week  I  dug  away  the  earth  from 
about  twenty  of  these  marked  trees,  and  found  dead  knots  only — 
a  specimen  of  which  I  brought  with  me,  that  members  of  this 
convention  interested  might  see  for  themselves.  The  trees  treat¬ 
ed  for  root-knot  now  look  as  clean  and  healthy  as  those  not 
treated — no  difference  can  be  seen — they  all  made  a  splendid 
growth  last  year  and  no  finer  trees  can  be  seen  in  our  section  of 
the  same  age.  In  the  light  of  these  facts,  I  consider  the  treat¬ 
ment  with  bluestone,  in  the  manner  herein  described,  a  success. 
Even  if  the  knots  should  reappear  after  three  or  four  years,  it 
would  still  be  profitable  to  apply  this  remedy  to  keep  the  knot 
growth  in  check.  The  cost  of  application  need  not  be  more  than 
three  to  five  cents  a  tree,  and  the  bluestone  used  is  so  trifling  in 
quantity  that  it  need  not  be  considered  in  the  bill  of  expense.  My 
treatment  of  root  knot  has  always  been  in  the  fall  months  of  the 
year.  Whether  other  seasons  would  do  as  well  or  better  I  am  not 
prepared  to  say. 

“Suggestions. — In  using  this  remedy,  my  advice  is  to  make  the 
bluestone  solution  as  strong  as  the  water  will  dissolve. 

“  In  applying  the  solution  be  sure  that  it  penetrates  the  core 
of  the  root-knot. 

“If  the  knot  is  on  the  main  stem  of  the  root,  so  as  to  be  easily 
accessible,  I  would  advise  to  knock  it  off  and  puncture  the  soft 
core  repeatedly  with  any  pointed  implement.  Then  apply  the 
solution  with  a  swab.  Be  sure  to  have  the  solution  penetrate  the 
diseased  wood.” 

This  experiment,  as  here  reported,  is  by  no  means  a  proof  that 
the  sulphate  of  copper  is  a  cure  for  the  root-gall.  Mr.  Smith 
simply  reports  that  the  treated  roots  did  not  again  develop  galls  ; 
but  if  Sorauer’s  hypothesis  of  the  formation  of  these  galls  is  cor¬ 
rect,  we  should  expect  that  they  would  not  return  if  once  removed. 
Mr.  Smith  should  have  left  some  trees  untreated  from  which  the 
knots  had  been  removed  ;  and  he  should  also  have  determined  if 
trees  from  which  the  knots  were  not  removed,  tend  to  develop 
still  more  knots.  Mr.  Smith’s  paper  brought  out  a  discussion 
from  Mr.  Yates,  the  larger  part  of  which  I  am  glad  to  quote 
(i California  Fruit  Grower ,  Feb.  9,  1895,  11 1),  particularly  as  his 
conclusions  are  essentially  like  those  of  Sorauer  : 


374 


Bulletin  117. 


“In  common  with  many  other  horticulturists,  Mr.  Smith 
assumes  the  root  tumor  to  be  a  disease,  which  in  the  strictest 
sense  of  the  word  it  is  not,  as  the  tumors  when  first  formed  are 
composed  of  healthy  cellular  tissue  ;  disease  being  afterwards 
superinduced  by  the  abnormal  condition  of  the  enlargements  inter¬ 
fering  with  the  proper  functions  of  the  sap  in  regard  to  circulation. 

“  My  first  investigations  of  tumor  were  made  with  the  idea  that 
possibly  such  curious  growths  resulted  from  an  inherited  cause, 
or  were  perhaps  the  work  of  minute  fungi  and  therefore  con¬ 
tagious  ;  so  I  budded,  grafted  and  inoculated  unaffected  from 
affected  trees,  but  all  to  no  purpose  ;  the  tumors  refused  to  be 
reproduced. 

“  But  while  investigating  along  this  line,  I  noticed  that  wher¬ 
ever  the  free  circulation  of  sap  under  certain  conditions  had  been 
checked  or  impeded,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  some  of 
these  tumors  commence  to  form,  and  several  years’  observation 
has  but  served  to  convince  me  that  they  are  primarily  caused, 
either  by  impeded  circulation  of  sap  and  consequent  disorgani¬ 
zation  of  the  sap  vessels  and  surrounding  tissues,  or  by  a  lack  of 
equality  in  the  absorption  of  moisture  by  the  roots  and  its  transpi¬ 
ration  by  the  leaves  and  branches. 

“  In  the  first  instance,  the  sap  being  forced  out  of  its  regular 
channels  and  unable  under  these  changed  conditions  to  perform 
its  proper  functions,  commences  to  throw  out  callus  formations, 
which  enlarge  very  rapidly  owing  to  the  amount  of  sap  forced 
into  them  through  what  is  generally  known  as  the  core  of  the 
knot.  This  mass  of  callused  matter  thus  irregularly  formed 
becomes  after  a  time  diseased,  and  it  is  at  this  stage  that  the 
fungus  growths  have  been  found  which  have  led  many  investi¬ 
gators  into  the  error  of  supposing  these  tumors  to  be  the  result  of 
fungi.  The  causes  of  this  impeded  circulation  are  many  ;  among 
which  may  be  mentioned,  grafting  and  budding,  when  there 
exists,  as  is  often  the  case,  a  disparity  in  size  or  lack  of  affinity 
between  scion  and  stock  ;  and  abrasions  or  wounds  of  any  kind 
made  on  the  tree  beneath  the  ground  surface. 

“  In  the  second  instance  the  lack  of  harmony  between  root  and 
branch  may  be  caused  by  an  unseasonable  loss  of  foliage,  either 
through  severe  summer  pruning,  or  the  killing  of  the  young 
growths  by  a  late  freeze.  The  means  of  transferring  the  moisture 


Fruit  Brevities. 


375 


absorbed  by  the  roots  being  thus  suddenly  cut  off,  the  sap  cells  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  tree  become  congested,  resulting  in  the 
ruptures  that  cause  the  formation  of  the  callus  knots,  or  tumors. 

“  As  to  the  remedy  for  these  tumors,  I  have  always  found  cut¬ 
ting  them  off  quite  effective  if  taken  in  time,  and  when  the  work 
has  been  well  done  I  have  seldom  seen  a  return  of  the  knots  ;  it 
is  well  to  cover  the  wounds  thus  made  with  grafting  wax  or  any 
substance  that  will  answer  the  purpose  of  excluding  the  air  with, 
out  injuring  the  tree. 

“  From  my  present  knowledge  of  root  tumors  I  fail  to  see  where 
Mr.  Smith’s  solution  of  bluestone  remedy  can  be  of  much  benefit. 
Regarding  the  dead  knots  he  found  on  trees  previously  treated 
with  this  remedy,  I  may  say  I  have  frequently  noticed  the  same 
thing,  as  in  many  cases  the  tumors  when  partly  rotten  became 
detached  from  the  tree,  often,  however,  leaving  a  canker  spot  that 
later  may  endanger  the  life  of  the  tree  affected,  if  not  attended  to. 

“I  have  more  commonly  met  with  these  tumors  on  peach, 
plum  and  apple,  but  also  occasionally  on  over  thirty  other  species 
of  fruits,  shade  trees  and  evergreens.  ’  ’ 

The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,  then,  as  we  now  under¬ 
stand  it,  is  that  these  root-galls  are  not  the  work  of  a  parasite,  but 
are  a  malformation  following  some  injury  of  the  root  or  some  un¬ 
congenial  condition  in  soil  or  treatment.  The  galls  may  seriously 
interfere  with  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  in  many  cases  causing  it 
to  become  weak  and  sickly.  It  is  probable  that  the  trouble  is  not 
communicable,  and  that  cutting  off  the  gall  averts  further  trouble 
from  that  source.  As  a  precautionary  measure,  however,  we 
much  prefer  to  plant  only  trees  with  perfectly  clean  and  normal 
roots. 


V.  ARE  DEWBERRIES  WORTH  GROWING? 

Nearly  five  years  ago,  we  published  a  bulletin  (No.  34)  upon 
the  dewberry  and  concluded,  from  the  results  of  our  experiments 
and  inquiry,  that  there  is  a  future  for  the  berry  for  commercial 
purposes.  There  was  a  brisk  demand  for  the  bulletin,  largely  due, 
it  seems,  to  the  novelty  of  the  subject ;  but  it  appears  to  have  had 
comparatively  little  immediate  effect  in  encouraging  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  the  fruit.  The  dewberry  is  so  unlike  all  other  small  fruits 


Bulletin  117. 


376 

in  its  habit  of  growth,  that  growers  seem  to  be  slow  to  learn  how 
to  handle  it ;  and  many  of  them  are  no  doubt  prejudiced  against 
it  because  the  species  is  so  common,  and  often  so  troublesome,  in 
old  fields  and  vineyards.  The  raspberry  and  blackberry  have  had 
a  similar  history,  and  the  prejudices  against  them  are  only  recently 
outgrown.  Here  and  there,  a  person  has  studied  the  dewberry 
and  has  found  it  to  be  a  valuable  addition  to  the  market  fruits  of 
early  summer.  I.  A.  Wilcox,  of  Portland,  Chautauqua  County, 
is  one  of  these,  and  he  read  a  paper  commending  the  berry  to  the 
Western  New  York  Horticultural  Society  last  winter.  I  know 
Mr.  Wilcox’s  plantation,  and  am  convinced  that  the  dewberry  is 
an  acquisition  to  him.  As  our  bulletin  is  now  out  of  print,  I 
shall  make  a  few  extracts  from  it  and  give  some  further  directions 
for  the  growing  of  the  plant. 

Of  the  dozen  or  twenty  varieties  of  dewberries  which  have  been 
named  and  introduced,  only  two,  the  Lucretia  and  Bartel,  have 
gained  wide  prominence.  In  fact,  there  may  be  said  to  be  only 
one  leading  variety,  and  that  is  the  Cucretia,  and  it  is  the  only 
one  which  has  been  well  tested  in  New  York.  The  full  history 
of  this  and  others  is  given  in  the  Bulletin  34.  The  dewberry 
bears  the  fruit  upon  the  canes  of  last  year’s  growth,  the  same  as 
raspberries  and  blackberries  do.  These  canes  are  long  and  weak 
and  naturally  lie  perfectly  prostrate  on  the  ground.  ‘  ‘  There  are 
several  methods  of  training  the  Lucretia  dewberry,”  we  wrote  in 
1891.  “  It  is  commonly  allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground.  The 

canes  are  cut  back  to  three  or  four  feet  in  length  in  the  same 
manner  as  blackberry  and  raspberry  canes  are  treated,  and  if  the 
best  results  are  expected  the  canes  should  be  thinned  to  four  or 
five  in  a  hill.  The  canes  are  usually  allowed  to  branch  freely, 
although  it  is  evident  that  some  checking  of  the  growth  may  often 
be  essential  to  good  results.  A  mulch  is  often  placed  under  them 
to  keep  the  berries  clean  and  to  retard  the  weeds.  When  this  is 
applied,  the  vines  are  raised  with  a  fork.  A.  M.  Purdy*  recom¬ 
mends  two  stakes,  one  to  hold  the  bearing  cane,  and  one  the 
growing  cane.  This  implies  that  only  one  cane  is  to  be  allowed 
to  fruit  each  year.  This  method  does  not  appear  to  be  in  practice 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  has  anything  to  recommend  it.  Trellises 


*  Small  Fruit  Instructor,  94  (1887)  ;  Pop.  Gard.  ii.  100,  160. 


Fruit  Brevities. 


377 


and  racks  of  various  kinds  have  been  devised.  In  our  plantation 
of  Fucretia  we  have  tried  three  methods  of  training.  In  one 
portion  of  the  plantation  the  plants  are  allowed  to  lie  upon  the 
ground  without  mulch,  and  the  canes  are  cut  off  when  three  or 
four  feet  long.  Another  portion  is  trained  upon  a  common  grape 


132.  Lucretia  dewberries  trained  to  stakes. 


trellis  of  three  wires,  the  canes  being  tied  to  the  wires  the  spring 
of  the  bearing  year  by  means  of  wool  twine.  In  the  third  portion 
the  vines  lie  upon  a  flat  rack  standing  18  inches  above  the  ground, 
and  made  of  light  slats  laid  crosswise  the  row  and  resting  upon 


378 


Bulletin  117. 


bents  at  the  sides.  There  has 
been  no  gain  in  productiveness 
or  earliness  upon  the  trellised 
or  racked  plants ;  the  only  ad¬ 
vantages  have  come  from  the 
greater  ease  of  picking  and 
cultivating  and  the  less  amount 
of  room  occupied.  And  these 
advantages  are  considerable, 
and  seem  to  me  to  warrant 
the  adoption  of  some  simple 
trellis,  preferably  a  wire  trellis, 
in  garden  culture.  Whether 
it  would  pay  in  field  or  market 
culture  is  a  question  which 
must  be  determined  by  the 
grower  himself.  The  labor  of 
tying  the  canes  to  the  wires  is 
somewhat  onerous,  but  it  is 
needed  only  once  in  the  sea¬ 
son.  This  training  does  not 
interfere  with  covering  for 
winter  protection,  for  the 
young  or  growing  canes  are 
allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground 
and  are  tied  up  the  following 
spring.  If  the  canes  inter¬ 
fere  with  cultivation  while 
growing  they  can  be  placed 
lengthwise  the  row  with  a 
rake  or  they  can  be  thrown 
over  the  lowest  wire.  After 
the  canes  have  borne,  they 
are  cut  out,  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  the  canes  of  raspber¬ 
ries  and  blackberries.”  Mr.  Wilcox  trains  to  three  strands  of 
No.  13  wire,  the  top  strand  being  three  feet  from  the  ground. 
Upon  several  accounts,  however,  I  prefer  tying  the  canes  to 


Fruit  Brevities. 


379 


stakes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  132.  Three  or  four  canes  may  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  grow  from  each  plant,  and  these  are  tied  to  the  stakes, 
with  wool  twine  or  willow  thongs,  two  or  three  times  during  the 
season,  as  they  grow.  The  canes  may  be  left  on  the  stakes  all 
winter,  although  it  is  better,  particularly  in  exposed  localities,  to 
lay  them  down  late  in  fall.  Whilst  the  year-old  canes  are  bearing 
fruit,  the  new  ones  are  growing  on  the  ground.  As  soon  as  the 
fruit  is  removed,  the  old  canes  are  cut  out  and  the  new  ones  are 
tied  up  for  the  remainder  of  the  season.  To  prevent  the  breaking 
of  these  young  canes  by  the  early  cultivating,  it  is  necessary  to 
turn  them  lengthwise  the  row  with  a  fork.  If  they  become  very 
strong  and  if  the  land  gets  weedy,  it  may  be  advisable  to  tie  up 
these  young  canes  along  with  the  old  ones  before  the  fruit  is 
picked.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  land  is  clean  so  that  much  cul¬ 
tivating  or  hoeing  is  unnecessary,  the  new  canes  may  be  allowed 

to  lie  on  the  ground  throughout  the  entire 
season.  This  is  scarcely  advisable,  however, 
for  they  are  likely  to  make  a  weak  and  soft 
growth  in  weeds  and  grass  and  shade,  and  the 
ground  cannot  receive  the  attention  which  it 
should  have.  Some  persons  tie  dewberries 
to  a  woven  wire  screen,  as  seen  in  Fig.  133. 
This  is  a  neat  practice  for  a  few  vines  in  the 
garden,  but  is  too  expensive  for  the  field,  and 
the  spaces  in  the  screen  are  not  large  enough 
to  allow  of  the  easy  movement  of  the  hand 
through  it  when  tying  and  picking. 

The  one  great  merit  of  the  dewberry  is  the 
earliness  of  the  fruit.  The  fruit  is  indis¬ 
tinguishable  from  the  blackberry  by  the  gen¬ 
eral  public,  and  it  is  ten  days  and  often  two 
weeks  earlier  than  the  standard  varieties 
“Dewberries,  raspberries,  and  blackberries 
grow  side  by  side  in  our  plantations,  and  we  have  had, 
therefore,  a  good  opportunity  to  observe  the  earliness  of 
the  Tucretia.  This  year  [1891]  the  first  ripe  raspberries 
— Marlboro  and  Rancocas — were  obtained  July  4.  At  this  time 
a  few  dewberries  were  about  fully  grown  and  had  turned  red. 


134.  Lucretia 
dewberry ,  nat¬ 
ural  size. 


of  blackberries. 


380 


Bulletin  117. 


July  8  a  few  ripe  dewberries  were  secured.  July  11  dewberries 
on  some  of  the  vines  were  ripening  rapidly,  and  at  this  time  Ada 
raspberry  was  just  ripening  and  Doolittle  and  Souhegan  were  in 
their  prime.  July  16  Early  Harvest  blackberry,  our  earliest  sort, 
gave  its  first  ripe  fruits,  while  the  first  picking  of  Agawam  was 
not  obtained  until  July  22.  July  16  there  were  no  flowers  to  be 
found  upon  the  dewberries,  but  the  blackberries  were  still  bloom¬ 
ing  freely.  A  week  later,  pickings  from  the  dewberries  had 
practically  ceased.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  dewberries 
ripen  with  the  earliest  black  raspberries.  But  it  must  be  said 
that  there  is  great  variation  in  the  time  of  ripening  between 
different  plants,”  a  fact  which  is  due  to  natural  variation  in  the 
character  of  the  variety.  In  propagating  the  dewberry,  it  is 
important  that  only  those  plants  which  bear  large  and  uniform 
fruits  shall  be  chosen  for  parents. 

In  quality,  the  Eucretia  dewberry  is  probably  inferior  to  the  best 
blackberries.  The  canes  are  also  rather  more  tender,  but  they 
are  so  easily  laid  down  and  covered  that  this  is  not  a  serious 
objection.  The  berries,  on  well  grown  plants,  are  large  and 
handsome,  glossy-black,  and  firm  enough  for  shipping.  The 
dewberry  is  not  so  heavy  a  cropper  as  the  blackberry.  Fifty  to 
sixty  bushels  per  acre  may  be  considered  to  be  a  fair  crop.  To 
secure  this  yield,  the  rows  should  stand  about  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart,  and  the  plants  from  two  to  three  feet  in  the  row. 

The  Eucretia  is  the  only  variety  which  I  can  confidently  recom¬ 
mend  for  this  state,  although  I  should  like  to  see  the  Bartel  given 
some  attention.  All  the  dewberries  propagate  by  rooting  at  the 
tips  and  joints  of  the  canes,  and  they  are  therefore  easily  increased 
by  any  grower. 

In  order  to  bring  the  gist  of  the  entire  dewberry  question  to  the 
reader’s  attention,  I  will  reprint  the  conclusions  of  Bulletin  34, 
adding  the  results  of  later  experience  : 

1 .  The  cultivated  dewberries  represent  three  distinct  species  of 
rubus  or  bramble,  and  two  well  marked  botanical  varieties.  It  is 
therefore  reasonable  to  expect  that  different  managements  may  be 
required  in  the  different  classes,  or  at  least  that  various  results 
will  be  obtained  from  their  cultivation. 


Fruit  Brevities.  381 

2.  The  botanical  types  to  which  the  cultivated  dewberries 
belong  are  these  : 

I.  The  northern  dewberry,  or  Rubus  Canadensis.  To  this 
type  belong  the  Windom,  Lucretia’s  Sister,  and  Geer. 

(a)  The  Lucretia  sub-type,  or  variety  roribaccus ,  comprising 
the  Lucretia. 

(b)  The  Bartel  sub-type,  or  var.  invisus.  To  this  belong 
Bartel  or  Mammoth,  General  Grant,  and  Never  Fail. 

II.  Southern  dewberry,  or  Rubus  trivialis.  Here  belong 
Manatee,  Bauer,  Wilson’s  White,  and  Austin,  and  prob¬ 
ably  Fairfax. 

III.  The  western  dewberry  or  Rubus  vitifolius  (known  also 
as  R.  ursinus').  Here  belong  the  varieties  known  as 
Aughinbaugh  (one  of  the  reputed  parents  of  the  Logan¬ 
berry),  Skagit  Chief,  Belle  of  Washington,  and  Washington 
Climbing.  None  of  these  berries  have  been  well  tested 
beyond  the  Pacific  coast  region. 

3.  The  dewberries  are  distinguished  from  the  blackberries  by 
a  true  trailing  habit,  cymose  and  few-flowered  inflorescence,  and 
the  habit  of  propagating  by  means  of  “tips.”  Like  the  black¬ 
berries  and  raspberries,  they  bear  their  fruit  upon  canes  of  last 
year’s  growth,  and  these  canes  die  or  become  weak  after  they 
have  fruited.  They  are  propagated  by  means  of  ‘  ‘  tips  ”  and  root 
cuttings. 

4.  The  peculiar  merits  of  the  dewberries  as  cultivated  fruits 
are  earliness,  large  size  and  attractive  appearance,  and  the  ease 
with  which  they  may  be  protected  in  winter. 

5.  The  peculiar  demerits  of  the  dewberries  are  the  failure  of 
the  flowers  to  set,  the  formation  of  nubbins,  and  the  difficulty  of 
picking  the  fruit.  There  is  no  positive  method  known  by  which 
the  first  two  difficulties  can  be  overcome,  and  the  causes  of  them 
are  unknown,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  tying  up  the 
canes,  and  pruning  and  thinning  will  tend  to  make  the  plant  pro¬ 
ductive.  The  labor  and  unpleasantness  of  picking  may  be 
avoided  by  training  the  plants  on  a  rack  or  trellis,  or  upon  stakes, 
and  by  keeping  them  well  pruned. 

6.  Various  methods  of  training  and  cultivation  are  advised. 
In  the  earlier  methods,  the  plants  were  generally  set  about  the 


382 


Bulletin  ii  7. 


same  distance  as  blackberries  (3x7  or  4x7)  and  the  canes  are 
allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground,  being  headed  in  when  they  reach 
about  three  feet  in  length.  A  mulch  of  straw  beneath  the  canes 
was  sometimes  used  to  keep  the  berries  clean  and  render  picking 
pleasanter.  At  present,  the  canes  are  either  trained  on  a  two-wire 
or  three- wire  trellis,  or  tied  to  stakes,  and  the  plants  are  set 
in  rows  which  are  three  or  four  feet  apart.  Only  three  to  six 
fruiting  canes  should  be  allowed  to  the  plant.  Some  varieties, 
particularly  Windom  and  Bartel,  appear  to  do  best  if  the  fruit  is 
shaded. 

7.  About  twenty  varieties  of  dewberry  have  been  named  and 
more  or  less  disseminated  during  the  last  twenty  years.  Of  these 
four  have  gained  more  or  less  prominence  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  are  found  to  possess  decided  merits  in  certain 
places.  This  is  a  fair  proportion  of  good  varieties  to  inferior  ones, 
as  indicated  by  the  annals  of  other  fruits.  These  four  are  Lucretia, 
Bartel,  Windom  and  Manatee. 

8.  Many  persons  have  found  dewberry  culture  to  be  profitable. 
This  is  evidence  that  the  fruit  is  an  acquisition.  But  it  has  not 
yet  found  general  favor,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  will  never  be¬ 
come  as  popular  as  the  blackberry.  Only  the  Lucretia  is  well 
known  in  New  York. 

9.  The  Windom  possesses  promise  for  the  northwest.  It  is  a 
native  of  Minnesota.  It  has  not  yet  been  tested  to  any  extent 
elsewhere.  It  appears  to  demand  partial  shade  for  the  best  suc¬ 
cess. 

10.  The  Lucretia  has  been  found  to  be  a  desirable  and  profit¬ 
able  fruit  in  many  places  over  a  large  extent  of  territory,  and  it 
is  therefore  safe  to  conclude  that  its  range  of  adaptation  is  large. 
Many,  however,  have  failed  with  it.  It  appears  to  be  variable 
and  many  of  the  plants  are  worthless.  It  is  sometimes  seriously 
attacked  by  anthracnose  and  by  a  bramble  rust.  The  Lucretia  is 
a  native  of  West  Virginia. 

1 1 .  Bartel  has  found  great  favor  with  some  growers  in  the 
west,  from  Wisconsin  to  Nebraska.  It  has  not  succeeded  well  in 
the  east  so  far.  The  variety  known  as  Mammoth  appears  to  be 
identical  with  Bartel.  It  is  native  to  southern  Illinois. 

12.  Manatee  is  said  to  be  valuable  for  the  south.  It  is  a  form 


Fruit  Brevities.  383 

of  Ritbus  trivialis,  and  was  fouud  in  Florida.  Other  types  of  this 
southern  species  are  no  doubt  destined  to  be  very  useful. 

.  VI.  THE  GOUMI.  EL  AG  AGNUS  LONGIPES* 

Much  has  been  said,  f  during  the  past  five  years,  about  the 
goumi,  all  of  which  is  deserved.  It  is  a  graceful  and  handsome 
bush  of  five  or  six  feet  high,  bearing  a  profusion  of  silvery-white 
leaves  and  most  abundant  crops  of  cinnibar-red  and  gold-flecked 
berries.  Whether  considered  for  ornament  or  for  fruit,  it  is  one 
of  the  best  of  the  many  excellent  shrubs  which  have  come  to  us 
from  Japan.  Its  silken-gray  foliage  is  of  a  kind  which  is  always 
desirable  in  shrubberies,  and  of  which  we  have  little  in  our  native 
flora.  The  bush  is  as  hardy  as  an  apple  tree.  It  stood  the  past 
winter  in  western  New  York  without  a  blemish.  It  is  enormously 
productive  of  fruit,  and  the  berries  are  a  delight  to  look  upon,  even 
if  one  does  not  desire  to  eat  them.  At  first,  these  berries  are  very 
astringent,  but  when  they  are  fully  ripe  and  soft,  they  have  a 
juicy  piquancy  which  I  enjoy.  I  have  not  tried  them  for  culinary 
purposes,  but  it  is  said  that  they  may  be  used  for  sauces  and  pies, 
and  in  the  many  ways  in  which  cranberries  are  so  delicious. 
The  fruits  begin  to  ripen  the  first  days  of  July  in  western  New 
York,  and  they  continue  upon  the  bush  for  three  weeks,  much 
to  the  delight  of  birds. 

I  do  not  know  when  this  delightful  bush  first  came  to  this 
country.  William  Falconer  wrote  in  1893  ( Gardening ,  i.  275) 
that  “  although  it  has  long  been  cultivated  in  gardens,  it  is  only 
within  the  last  few  years  that  its  merits  have  been  generally  ap¬ 
preciated,  and  it  has  become  in  much  demand.”  It  could  not 
have  been  a  very  old  resident  of  American  gardens.  It  seems  to 
have  been  first  brought  prominently  to  notice  in  England  in  1873, 
by  an  illustration  and  description  in  Gardener' s  Chronicle ,  by 
Maxwell  T.  Masters.  The  species  was  described  by  Asa  Gray  in 

*  Pronounced  lon-gi-pees.  The  name  means  “  long-footed,”  that  is,  long¬ 
stemmed,  and  refers  to  the  fruit  stems. 

f  For  illustrated  accounts  of  it,  see  Garden  and  Forest ,  i.  499(1889); 
American  Garden,  xi.  565  (1890);  Van  Deman,  Rept.  Dept  Agric. ,  1890, 
423,  colored  plate  (under  the  name  of  Elceagnus  pungens )  ;  Orchard  and 
Garden ,  xiv.  157  (1892)  ;  Gardening ,  i.  275,  277  (1893). 


384 


Bulletin  117. 


135-  The  Goumi.  {Elreagnus  longipes,  var.  horten- 

sis  Natural  size). 


1859.  Maximowicz 
(Bull.  Acad.  Imper. 
Sci.  St.  Petersburg, 
vii.  560,  1870)  divides 
the  species  into  four 
varieties,  two  of  which 
bear  edible  fruit.  The 
form  which  is  grown 
in  this  country  is  the 
variety  liortensis ,  char¬ 
acterized  by  spineless 
branches,  elliptical 
leaves,  very  long  fruit- 
stems, and  large  edible 
fruit.  In  nurseries, 
the  plant  is  sometimes 
called  Elceagnus  edu- 
lis. 

The  goumi  grows 
readily  from  seeds. 
These  should  be  sown 
orstratfiedin  summer, 
before  they  become 
dry,  and  allowed  to 
freeze  the  following 
winter.  The  next 
spring,  they  should 
germinate  freely.  Cut¬ 
tings  of  the  half-ri¬ 
pened  wood  strike 
readily  in  June  or 
July,  if  handled  in 
frames.  As  soon  as 
attention  is  given  to 
cultivation  and  selec¬ 
tion,  we  may  expect 
the  goumi  to  become 
prized  for  the  edible 
qualities  of  its  fruit. 


Fruit  Brevities. 


385 


VII.  THE  WINTER  INJURIES. 

The  past  winter  was  unprecedently  severe  upon  vegetation, 
throughout  the  state.  In  most  parts,  all  stone  fruits  were  much 
injured.  Only  sour  cherries  seem  to  have  escaped  the  havoc,  and 
even  they  are  not  a  heavy  crop.  Pears  were  also  seriously  hurt. 

The  University  premises  are  not  ideal  lands  for  the  tenderer 
fruits.  The  location  is  too  high  and  bleak,  and  it  is  too  far  re¬ 
moved  from  the  influence  of  Cayuga  lake.  The  condition  of  the 
stone  fruits,  particularly  of  peaches,  in  the  Cornell  plantations  is 
not  an  accurate  guide  to  the  conditions  in  the  more  favored  fruit 
sections  ;  yet  a  brief  discussion  of  the  winter  inj  uries  to  fruits  at 
this  place  may  have  some  points  of  usefulness. 

At  the  outset,  it  should  be  said  that  the  phenomenal  injury 
wrought  by  last  winter  was  probably  not  wholly  the  result  of  low 
temperature.  The  drought  of  the  last  summer  and  fall  no  doubt 
augmented  the  injury.  It  is  well  known  that  trees  suffer  more 
from  cold  weather  when  the  ground  is  very  dry.  I  have  compiled 
some  figures  from  the  reports  of  our  meteorological  bureau  to 
show  the  conditions  existing  last  winter.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
total  rainfall  for  last  year  was  about  twenty-eight  and  a  half 
inches,  whilst  the  normal  precipitation  is  thirty-five  to  forty 
inches.  During  the  period  from  July  to  December,  inclusive,  of 
1895,  the  rainfall  was  less  than  sixteen  inches,  which  is  two  and 
a  third  inches  below  the  rainfall  of  the  like  period  of  1894,  even 
though  that  period  was  also  a  very  dry  one. 

There  are  probably  two  ways  in  which  the  effects  of  a  drought 
augment  winter  injuries.  In  the  first  place,  the  tree  is  probably 
weakened  in  vitality  by  an  excessively  dry  season,  and  is  thereby 
unable  to  endure  so  great  exposure  to  cold.  In  the  second  place, 
there  is  evaporation  of  moisture  from  trees  during  the  winter 
season,  and  if  the  ground  is  very  dry  this  loss  cannot  be  readily 
met ;  and  the  tree  thereby  “  freezes  dry,”  a  condition  which  every 
nurseryman  knows  is  generally  fatal  to  trees.  The  extent  to 
which  loss  of  moisture  may  take  place  through  the  bark  of  dor¬ 
mant  twigs  may  be  determined  by  cutting  off  the  twigs  and 
quickly  sealing  over  the  ends  with  wax,  weighing  them,  and  then 
detecting  the  loss  in  weight  from  time  to  time.  The  following 


Rainfall  at  Cornell  University,  in  Periods  of  Judy  to  December  Inceusive,  from  1889  to  1895. 


386 


Bulletin  117 


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Fruit  Brevities. 


387 


figures  of  such  measurements  will  serve  to  emphasize  the  fact 
that  moisture  is  lost  from  winter  twigs,  although  they  are  not 
disigned  to  show  the  actual  rate  of  this  loss  when  the  twigs  occupy 
their  natural  position  on  the  tree. 

April  7th,  a  cion  of  apple  weighing  4.425  grams  was  placed  on 
a  balance,  and  the  loss  by  evaporation  measured  at  intervals  dur¬ 
ing  three  days.  The  cut  end  of  the  cion  was  sealed  with  wraxto 
confine  evaporation  to  that  which  may  take  place  through  the 
bark.  The  balance  or  scales  was  placed  in  a  living  room,  where 
the  readings  could  be  taken  at  frequent  intervals.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  rate  of  evaporation  was  nearly  constant,  averag¬ 
ing  about  ^  centigram  per  hour. — 


Twig 
weighing 
4.425  grams. 

Lost 

in 

2  hrs 

Addi¬ 
tional 
loss 
in  12 
hrs 

In 

18 

hrs 

In 

24 

hrs 

In 

26 

hrs 

In 

36 

hrs 

In 

44 

hrs 

In 

48 

hrs 

In 

51 

hrs 

In 

60 

hrs 

In 

64 

hrs 

In 

68 

hrs 

In 

77 

hrs 

To¬ 

tal 

loss. 

Per 

cent 

loss. 

I 

cg- 

5  eg. 

2 

eg- 

5 

eg- 

2 

cg- 

5 

eg- 

4 

eg- 

2 

eg- 

2 

eg- 

4 

eg- 

2 

eg- 

2 

eg- 

3 

eg 

39 

eg. 

.c8S 

1 

It  has  been  said  that  the  rate  of  the  loss  of  moisture  from 
trees  in  winter  determines  the  relative  hardiness  of  different  varie¬ 
ties  of  apples,  and  of  some  other  fruits.  The  following  table  shows 
studies  of  twigs  of  varieties  of  different  degrees  of  hardiness,  but 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  per  cent  of  loss  of  moisture  bears  no  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  supposed  hardiness  of  the  varieties  : 

Early  in  April,  twigs  from  the  previous  year’s  growth  were 
taken  from  several  varieties  of  apples,  which  vary  much  in  their 
ability  to  endure  our  climate.  The  twigs  were  carefully  weighed, 
and  the  cut  ends  were  then  sealed  with  wax  to  prevent  evapora¬ 
tion  save  through  the  bark.  At  the  expiration  of  two  days  the 
wax  was  removed  and  the  twigs  again  weighed.  The  twigs  were 
kept  in  an  open  shed. — 


383 


Bulletin  117. 


• 

Varieties. 

Original 

weight. 

Grammes. 

Weight  at 
the  expira¬ 
tion  of  two 
days. 

Grammes. 

Loss. 

Per  cent  of 
loss. 

Seek-no-further, Twig  No.  i 

I.07 

.985 

.085 

.0794 

Seek-no-further,  No.  2 . 

1-3275 

1-255 

.0725 

.0546 

*Fameuse,  No.  1 . . 

1-095 

1.025 

.07 

•0639 

*Fameuse,  No.  2 . 

.82 

-725 

.085 

.103 

Fall  Jennetting,  No.  1 . 

1.0475 

1. 

-0475 

.0453 

Fall  Jennetting,  No.  2 . 

i-45 

1.3875 

.0625 

.0431 

■^Northern  Spy,  No.  1 . 

1.38 

1-3125 

•0675 

.0489 

*Northern  Spy,  No.  2 . 

I-I55 

1.0925 

.0625 

-054 

*01denburg,  No.  1  . 

1-595 

i-55 

•045 

.028 

*01denburg,  No.  2  . 

1.8475 

1-7475 

.1 

.053 

*01denburg,  No.  3 . 

I.3725 

1.265 

.1075 

.078 

Baldwin,  No.  1  . 

2. 11 

2.0025 

•1075 

.0509 

Baldwin,  No.  2  . 

1-34 

1.26 

.08 

•059 

Baldwin,  No.  3  . 

•93 

.87 

.06 

.064 

RhodeIslandGreening,No.i 

1.1825 

1. 11 

.0725 

.061 

RhodeIslandGreening,No.2 

1-055 

•99 

.065 

.061 

*Titovka . 

1.8075 

1.7075 

.1 

-055 

*Red  Astrachan,  No.  1 . 

i-45 

1.3425 

-1075 

-074 

*Red  Astrachan,  No.  2 . 

1.4825 

1.4075 

•075 

.051 

^Supposed  to  be  the  hardiest  varieties. 


The  following  table  shows  that  there  is  great  variation  in  the 
rate  of  water  loss  between  twigs  of  the  same  variety  of  apple  : 


Varieties. 

Original 

weight. 

Grains. 

Weight 
at  the  ex¬ 
piration 
of  three 
days. 

Loss. 

Grains. 

Per  cent 
of  loss. 

Average 
per  cent 
of  loss. 

Baldwin,  Twig  No.  1 . 

I9. 

16.9 

2. 1 

.IIO 

No.  2  . 

I9-425 

17.2 

2.225 

•  if4 

No.  3 . 

18.9 

16.75 

2-  15 

.113 

No.  4 . 

29.25 

26.4 

285 

.0974 

No.  5 . 

24.2 

21.4 

2.8 

•115 

.1098 

Oldenburg,  No.  1 . 

31-3 

29.4 

x-9 

.0607 

No.  2 . 

34-65 

31-35 

3-3 

.0952 

No  3  . 

15.8 

14-3 

1. 

•0949 

No.  4 . 

28.95 

26.6 

2-35 

.0812 

No.  5 . 

9-5 

8.25 

1.25 

.131 

.0926 

Peaches, and  the  Treatment  of  Injured  Fruit  Trees.— 
Not  only  the  fruit  buds  of  peaches  were  killed,  but  the  trees 
themselves  were  very  seriously  injured  upon  the  University  place. 
Most  of  the  last  year’s  growth  was  wholly  killed,  and  in  many 


Fruit  Brevities.  389 

instances  vigorous  branches  an  inch  in  diameter  were  destroyed. 
All  peach  wood  was  markedly  browned  and  discolored. 

The  proper  treatment  for  any  trees  so  seriously  injured  as  this 
is  to  cut  them  back  very  heavily.  This  severe  heading-in — some¬ 
times  to  the  extent  of  three  or  four  feet — removes  the  driest  and 
weakest  portions  and  concentrates  the  energy  of  the  tr£e  into  a 
comparatively  small  area  of  top.  Heavy  pruning  always  tends 
towards  the  production  of  wood,  and  this  wood  production  is  prob¬ 
ably  never  more  needed  than  in  winter-injured  trees,  for  it 
tends  to  renew  the  vitality  of  the  tree.  The  philosophy  of  this  be¬ 
comes  apparent  upon  a  moment’s  reflection.  The  browned  and 
injured  wood  can  never  regain  its  former  usefulness.  New  tissue 
must  be  developed  as  quickly  as  possible  in  order  to  carry  forward 
and  to  maintain  the  vegetative  energies.  This  new  tissue  is  laid 
on  over  the  old,  and  the  old,  thereby,  quickly  becomes  sealed  in, 
so  to  speak,  and  removed  from  the  agencies  of  decay.  Every 
observant  fruit-grower  knows  that  if  a  tree  which  is  severely  win¬ 
ter-injured  in  limb  and  trunk  were  to  bear  even  a  partial  crop  of 
fruit  in  the  coming  season,  it  would  very  likely  die  outright.  If, 
however,  all  its  energies  were  directed  to  the  development  of  new 
tissue,  the  injury  would  soon  be  overgrown.  The  injured  wood, 
like  the  heartwood  of  the  tree,  is  soon  removed  from  active  partici¬ 
pation  in  the  vital  processes.  It  therefore  follows  that  the  danger 
resulting  from  the  browning  or  blackening  of  the  wood  by  winter 
injury,  depends  very  much  upon  the  subsequent  treatment  of  the 
trees. 

Pears* — In  the  Cornell  plantation,  pears  will  be  a  very  light 
crop  this  year,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  winter.  There  was  no 
injury  to  the  growth  or  to  fruit-spurs,  but  many  of  the  fruit-buds 
were  killed. 

There  is  much  complaint  of  the  blackening  of  the  pear  wood 
by  the  winter  injury.  Several  varieties  upon  our  own  plantation 
show  wood  which  looks  to  be  lifeless,  yet  the  trees  are  making 
good  growth.  Much  of  this  wood  really  is  irreparably  injured,  but 
the  new  layer  which  is  now  making  may  be  expected  to  maintain 
the  health  of  the  trees  in  perfection,  as  explained  above.  I  have 
observed  this  injury  to  pears  from  time  to  time  for  twenty  years, 
and  the  trees  have  invariably  recuperated  if  given  good  care.  I 


390 


Bulletin  117. 


recall  making  the  experiment  of  setting  cions  of  pear  wood  which 
was  so  completely  blackened  as  to  appear  as  if  hopelessly  injured. 
The  grafts  grew,  and  bore  for  many  years,  and  were  in  no  way 
inferior  to  ordinary  pear  grafts. 

In  some  parts  of  the  state,  pear  trees  were  ruined  by  the  winter. 
In  most  instances,  these  trees  will  leaf  out  this  spring  and  they 
may  make  some  growth,  but  later  on  they  will  be  found  to  droop 
and  die  much  as  if  attacked  by  blight.  The  wood,  upon  being 
cut,  will  be  found  to  be  much  discolored.  This  serious  injury  to 
pear  trees  will  probably  not  be  found  in  the  well  known  fruit 
regions  of  the  state,  however. 

Plums. — There  are  practically  no  plums  upon  the  University 
place  this  year,  except  of  native  species.  The  trees  had  set  pro¬ 
fusely  of  buds,  but  the  buds,  and,  in  most  instances,  the  entire 
fruit-spur,  were  killed  outright.  There  is  now  and  then  a  fruit 

on  Lombard  and  a  few  other  varieties.  None  of  the  domestica 

* 

plum  trees  were  injured  in  body  or  limb  by  the  winter. 

Of  the  Japanese  plums  we  shall  have  no  fruits,  except  now  and 
then  one  on  cions  set  two  years  ago  in  Lombard  tops.  The  fruit- 
spurs  of  the  Japanese  varieties  were  killed  in  about  the  same 
degree  as  those  of  the  domesticas.  Georgeson  and  Abundance, 
however,  were  somewhat  injured  on  the  top  growths,  but  the  trees 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  damaged.  Burbank,  Red  June,  and 
Yosebe  (of  our  Bulletin  106,  Fig.  13),  were  wholly  uninjured, 
save  the  loss  of  the  fruit-spurs.  Yosebe  even  bore  a  few  flowers, 
but  they  did  not  set  fruit.  Judging  from  the  behavior  of  the 
Japanese  plums  upon  our  grounds  last  winter,  they  are  about  as 
hardy  in  tree  and  bud  as  the  common  run  of  the  domesticas. 

In  contrast  to  the  domestica  and  the  Japanese  varieties,  the 
Americana  types  stood  the  winter  without  a  blemish  and  are  now 
carrying  a  full  setting  of  fruit.  Even  One  or  two  of  the  Chicasaws 
blossomed,  but  they  will  probably  mature  no  fruit.  Wild  Goose 
was  not  injured. 

Apricots. — The  winter  totally  destroyed  the  entire  fruit  spurs 
of  all  the  apricots  upon  the  Cornell  plantation,  including  the 
Russian  varieties  (Budd,  Gibb,  Catherine,  Nicholas),  and  the 
Russian  almond  of  Lovett  (which  is  an  apricot).  The  only  vari¬ 
ety  which  was  seriously  killed  back  in  limb  is  the  Royal,  but  the 


Fruit  Brevities. 


39i 


wood  of  nearly  all  apricots  is  discolored.  Early  Golden  and 
Moorpark  did  not  kill  back  ;  and  young  trees  of  the  Primus 
Mume  type  (see  Bulletin  71)  were  only  slightly  injured.  The 
Russian  varieties  were  least  injured  in  wood  of  any  of  our  apri¬ 
cots.  When  pruning  the  trees  this  spring,  it  was  very  noticeable 
that  the  wood  of  the  Russians  was  hard  and  firm  and  compara¬ 
tively  little  discolored.  Yet,  I  should  not  advise  the  growing  of 
Russian  apricots  in  this  region,  because  other  kinds  bear  so  much 
better  fruit,  and  it  is  only  at  long  intervals  that  we  have  such 
winters  as  the  last  one  proved  to  be. 

Dwarf  Cherries. — We  have  three  types  of  dwarf  cherries 
(see  Bulletin  70)  growing  together  in  a  border  alongside  a  lawn. 
One  of  these  is  the  common  sand  cherry  ( Prunus  pumila )  of  the 
east.  This  was  uninjured.  Another  is  the  western  dwarf  cherry 
(Prunus  Besseyi).  The  form  of  this  known  as  the  Improved 
Rocky  Mountain  dwarf  cherry  was  very  severely  injured,  and  one 
bush  of  it  was  killed  back  to  within  six  or  eight  inches  of  the 
ground.  Bushes  which  we  have  grown  from  Nebraska  and  Man¬ 
itoba  seeds  were  wholly  uninjured  and  are  now  laden  with  fruit. 
The  third  type  is  the  Utah  Hybrid  cherry,  which  wholly  escaped 
injury  and  which  is  now  bearing  a  very  heavy  crop  of  fruit. 
This  cherry  is  a  hybrid  of  Prunus  Besseyi  and  Prunus  Watsoni. 
The  latter  is  the  sand  plum  of  Nebraska.  A  small  bush  of  it, 
growing  with  the  above  cherries,  was  practically  uninjured. 

Nuts. — Spanish  and  Japanese  chestnuts  were  set  in  the  spring 
of  1889,  in  a  protected  location.  They  were  from  a  northern 
nursery.  The  Spanish  have  been,  killed  back  by  every  winter, 
sprouting  out  from  the  trunk  or  the  crown  each  year.  Last  winter 
they  were  killed  to  the  ground. 

The  Japanese  chestnuts  have  stood  fairly  well,  although  they 
are  not  fully  hardy.  The  trees  are  now  only  eight  feet  high, 
however,  because  of  the  killing  back  of  the  leading  shoots  nearly 
every  winter.  They  are  well  branched  and  broad-headed,  but 
look  as  if  they  would  always  be  weak  and  poor  trees. 

The  European  or  English  walnut  rarely  escapes  winter  injury 
at  Cornell.  Last  winter  the  branches  froze  back  a  foot  or  two. 

The  filbert  (variety  known  as  Prolific  Cob)  lost  all  its  fruit  buds 
and  male  catkins,  and  the  young  growth  froze  back  severely. 


392 


Bulletin  117. 


The  Japanese  walnut  ( Juglans  Sieboldiana)  passed  the  winter 
without  injury  and  is  now  in  full  bloom. 

VIII.  CRIMSON  CLOVER  IN  ORCHARDS. 

The  experience  with  crimson  clover  in  western  New  York  is 
now  sufficient  to  show  that  it  is  capable  of  enduring  the  winter 
under  favorable  conditions,  but  that  the  failures  are  quite  as 
numerous  as  the  successes.  It  is  probable  that  we  have  not  yet 
learned  just  how  to  grow  it.  Yet  even  now,  there  appears  to  be 
as  uniform  success  with  crimson  clover  sown  in  July  and  August 
as  there  is  with  the  common  red  and  mammoth  clovers  sown  at 
the  same  time. 

There  are  certain  misapprehensions  respecting  crimson  clover 
which  I  desire  to  correct.  In  the  first  place,  we  recommend  it 
only  for  orchards,  not  as  a  forage  or  hay  crop.  The  common 
clovers,  sown  in  the  spring,  are  much  more  useful  in  the  general 
farm  rotations.  This  crimson  clover  is  an  annual  and  is  capable 
of  living  over  winter.  It  may  therefore  be  sown  after  the  sum¬ 
mer  cultivation  is  done,  and  afford  some  benefit  to  the  land  at  a 
time  when  the  trees  are  comparatively  quiescent.  The  various 
uses  of  crimson  clover  in  the  orchard  are  discussed  at  some 
length  in  our  Bulletin  102.  Persons  err  in  looking  for  a  too 
heavy  stand  of  crimson  clover.  It  must  not  be  expected  to  give 
the  amount  of  herbage  which  the  ordinary  clover  seeding  does. 
Even  a  thin  covering,  if  it  passes  the  winter,  is  very  useful  in 
improving  the  conditions  of  the  land  ;  and  a  good  fall  stand 
which  wholly  kills  out  during»the  winter  is  also  worth  the  grow¬ 
ing  upon  the  greater  part  of  our  fruit  lands,  We  are  convinced 
that  crimson  clover  has  come  to  stay,  but  we  are  equally  con¬ 
vinced  that  it  is  unwise  to  rely  upon  it  year  by  year  for  a  cover 
crop.  It  will  find  its  place  in  a  judicious  alternation  of  cover 
crops,  the  particular  alternation  to  be  determined  by  every  far¬ 
mer  for  himself. 

Crimson  clover  is  often  sown  too  late.  We  think  that  the  last 
week  in  July  or  the  first  week  in  August  is  as  late  as  it  can  be 
sown  with  safety  in  the  average  year.  If  sown  later,  it  obtains 
too  little  root-hold  ;  if  sown  in  June,  it  becomes  too  ripe  before 
winter.  The  latest  sowing  which  we  know  to  have  successfully 


Fruit  Brevities. 


393 


passed  last  winter  was  made  for  us  in  a  nursery  at  Dansville  (by 
F.  M.  Hartman)  on  the  17th  of  August.  Upon  the  drier  portions 
of  the  area,  the  stand  was  very  poor,  but  in  the  moister  places  it 
made  an  excellent  show  this  spring.  Mr.  George  A.  Sweet,  of 
Dansville,  sowed  a  large  area  upon  the  8th  of  August.  In  parts 
of  the  field  there  was  an  excellent  stand  this  spring,  but  in  large 
portions  of  it  there  was  none.  There  are  many  experiences  like 
this,  and  most  of  them  are  traceable  to  a  poor  catch  of  seed  in 
the  fall.  What  agencies  underlie  these  poor  catches  it  is  difficult 
to  determine,  but  they  are  probably  such  as  are  associated  with 
the  mechanical  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  and  are  undoubtedly 
of  the  same  kind  as  those  which  are  responsible  for  so  many 
poor  stands  of  common  clover. 

We  made  an  experiment  last  year  upon  crimson  clover  upon 
hard  clay  land,  sowing  it  at  four  intervals,  July  25,  August  14, 
August  29  and  September  9.  Only  the  first  sowing  passed  the 
winter.  The  details  of  the  experiment  are  as  follows  : 

A  strip  of  land  in  the  Cornell  pear  orchard  was  sown  to  crimson 
clover  July  25,  1895,  the  seed  being  harrowed  in.  A  second 
sowing  was  made  August  14;  a  third,  August  29;  and  the  fourth, 
September  9.  At  the  time  of  the  third  sowing  the  soil,  which  is 
a  heavy  clay,  was  in  excellent  condition  ;  it  was  moist  and  well 
pulverized,  while  the  first  two  lots  of  seed  did  not  have  equally 
favorable  conditions.  The  stand  from  the  first  sowing  was  fairly 
good  during  the  latter  part  of  August,  the  plants  being  from  one 
to  five  inches  high.  The  growth  in  the  moister  parts  of  the  plat 
was  the  most  vigorous.  Seedlings  from  the  second  sowing  were 
also  slowly  appearing,  but  not  uniformly. 

When  the  last  sowing  was  made  September  9,  the  plants  of  the 
first  lot  stood  from  one  to  eight  inches  high  ;  the  strongest  growth 
was  made  by  a  few  plants  upon  the  more  moist  soil.  The  plants 
of  the  second  lot  were  from  one  to  three  inches  high,  only  a  few, 
however,  measuring  the  greatest  height.  Most  of  the  plants  were 
small,  and  the  growth  was  weak.  The  seed  leaves  were  appearing 
upon  the  third  plot,  and  a  few  plants,  again  in  the  more  moist 
places,  had  each  produced  a  true  leaf. 

Notes  taken  .  October  1 8  show  that  the  plots  differed  greatly. 
The  plants  from  the  first  sowing  averaged  about  six  inches  in 


394 


BuUvKTin  i  i  7. 


height  in  the  more  favorable  spots,  and  they  covered  the  ground 
thickly,  the  remainder  of  the  plot  having  fewer  and  smaller 
plants,  some  spots  being  entirely  bare. 

The  stand  of  the  second  plot  proved  to  be  fairly  good,  but  the 
plants  were  all  small,  those  in  the  drier  places  being  not  more  than 
an  inch  or  two  in  height,  while  in  the  most  favorable  places  the 
average  height  was  scarcely  over  four  inches. 

The  growth  upon  the  third  plot  was  unexpectedly  poor  consid¬ 
ering  the  favorable  circumstances  under  which  the  seed  had  been 
sown.  Only  a  few  seedlings  had  survived,  and  these  were  small 
and  very  spreading,  in  this  respect  resembling  those  which  were 
making  a  poor  growth  in  plot  2. 

The  fourth  sowing,  made  September  9,  showed  a  better  stand  of 
plants,  and  the  growth  had  been  so  rapid  that  they  fully  equaled 
in  size  those  of  plot  3. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  the  plots  when  winter  set  in.  A 
slight  growth  was  made  late  in  the  fall,  but  no  material  change 
took  place  in  the  appearance  of  the  plants.  But  in  the  spring  of 
1896  the  effect  of  the  winter  was  very  plainly  to  be  seen.  April 
17,  all  the  plants  which  were  growing  in  the  dry  places  of  plot 
one  had  been  killed,  as  well  as  those  whose  roots  had  been  exposed 
more  or  less  by  the  wash  of  water  during  rain  ;  these  probably 
suffered  from  drought  when  the  land  began  to  dry,  and  were  con¬ 
sequently  unable  to  withstand  the  cold  of  the  winter  or  of  early 
spring.  In  uniformly  moist  places  fully  90  per  cent  of  the  original 
stand  passed  the  winter  in  good  condition,  and  growth  was  vigor¬ 
ously  continued  as  the  weather  became  warmer. 

In  plot  2  apparently  not  more  than  1  per  cent  lived  through 
the  winter.  One  place,  much  favored  by  uniform  conditions  of 
moisture,  contained  many  small  but  healthy  plants;  the  remainder 
of  the  plot  was  almost  totally  bare. 

Plots  3  and  4  showed  no  trace  of  the  presence  of  crimson  clover. 
Every  plant  appeared  to  have  been  destroyed,  and  only  the  bare 
soil  and  an  occasional  weed  were  visible. 

Experiments  made,  partially  under  our  supervision,  by  T.  G. 
Yeomans  and  Sons,  well  known  fruit  growers  at  Walworth, 
Wayne  County,  are  reported  below.  These  plots  were  upon  good 
dark  orchard  loam,  which  is  in  a  good  state  of  cultivation,  and 


Fruit  Brevities. 


395 


the  test  was  in  every  way  as  fair  as  we  could  wish  to  have  tried. 
The  season,  of  course,  was  exceptional. 

“  Plot  No.  i. — Early  in  May  we  sowed  a  plot  of  crimson  clover 
which  was  in  bloom  July  29th,  after  having  been  cut  back  to  cut 
off  the  weeds  growing  with  it.  The  clover  on  this  plot  was  all 
dead  this  spring. 

“  Plot  No.  2. — June  23,  1895,  sowed  three  strips  in  orchard,  one 
each  of  crimson,  medium  red,  and  alsike.  The  seed  was  har¬ 
rowed  in  by  a  Breed’s  weeder,  and  rolled.  We  had  a  fine  shower 
the  day  previous.  It  came  up  quickly,  and  on  Sept.  4th,  the 
crimson  had  a  few  blossom  heads.  At  this  time  the  red  and  the 
crimson  were  about  the  same  size,  and  covered  the  ground.  The 
alsike  was  only  about  half  as  large  as  the  other  two.  All  of  these 
plots  had  a  good  deal  of  barnyard  grass  at  this  date,  while  that 
sown  one  month  later  had  none,  and  was  quite  free  from  all  weeds. 
The  crimson  clover  of  this  plot  is  all  dead  in  the  spring  of  1896, 
while  the  red  and  alsike  are  about  the  same  size,  and  both  cover 
the  ground  nicely. 

“  Plot  No.  j. — July  16,  1895.  Sowed  three  and  one-half  acres 
of  Crimson  clover  in  orchard.  It  came  up  quickly  and  covered 
the  ground  completely,  and  was  admired  by  all.  Much  of  it  was 
killed  during  the  winter,  although  it  was  in  a  sheltered  place 
where  the  snow  did  not  blow  off.  The  ground  was  rather  low. 
It  was  plowed  under  about  May  15th,  1896,  leaving  the  ground 
in  finer  and  better  condition  than  we  have  ever  seen  it  on  that  plot. 

“  Plot  No.  4 . — July  16,  1895.  Sowed  three  more  strips  of  the 
three  clover  orchards,  as  in  plot  No.  2.  This  all  came  up  well, 
and  did  not  have  weeds  growing  in  it,  as  did  plot  No.  2.  In  the 
spring  of  1896  the  .strip  of  crimson  is  nearly  all  killed,  while  the 
red  is  as  large  as  the  red  of  Plot  No.  2,  and  the  alsike  about  half 
as  large. 

“  Plot  No.  5. — On  July  18th,  plowed  under  five  acres  of  stubble 
in  open  field,  after  cutting  off  a  crop  of  hay.  Sowed  it  all  to 
crimson  clover,  which  came  up  quickly  and  covered  the  ground 
well  before  winter.  This  spring  it  was  in  fine  condition  and 
covered  the  ground  completely,  except  a  small  strip  through  one 
side,  where  the  snow  had  evidently  been  blown  off  from  a  ridge. 
This  plot  is  located  on  the  east  side  of  a  large  piece  of  woods, 


Bulletin  117. 


396 

< 

which  shelters  it  from  the  west  winds,  which  are  our  prevailing 
winds.  This  plot  was  plowed  May  nth  this  year  and  planted  to 
corn. 

“  Plot  No.  6. — August  17th.  Sowed  three  more  strips  in 
orchard  similar  to  plot  No.  2,  but  a  shower,  just  as  we  were 
finishing  the  harrowing,  prevented  our  rolling  it.  Neither  of 
these  strips  grew  in  the  fall  of  1895,  and  it  is  apparently  a  failure. 

‘  ‘  As  the  result  of  our  experiments  last  season  with  these 
clovers,  we  will  not  sow  any  more  crimson  on  any  large  scale 
until  we  have  experimented  further  with  it,  but  will  try  medium 
red,  sown  in  our  orchards  about  June  15th,  to  July  20th.  Our 
objects  will  be  to  secure  a  covering  for  the  ground  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer,  fall  and  winter  to  improve  the  mechani¬ 
cal  condition  of  the  soil,  and  to  add  fertility.  Our  intention 
would  be  to  plow  under  the  clover  in  May  and  June  following. 
We  refer  to  orchard  purposes  entirely.  We  think  the  red  is 
worthy  of  further  experiments,  and  would  advise  others  to  try  it 
for  themselves.  We  have  long  felt  the  need  of  something  which 
will  give  us  the  results  we  have  attained  the  past  season  with  the 
red  clover,  and  if  results  are  generally  as  satisfactory  as  they  have 
been  this  time,  we  will  be  satisfied;”  but  we  are  not  yet  ready 
to  give  any  final  opinion  upon  the  question. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 


Bulletin  118.  July,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

CHEMICAL  DIVISION. 


FOOD  PRESERVATIVES 

- AND - 

BUTTER  INCREASERS. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY. 
JTHACA,  N.  Y, 

1896. 


ORGAN  IZATION 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Goued  Schurman. 

Hon.  A.  D.  White,  -  -  -  Trustee  of  the  University. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -  President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -----  Agriculture. 
Professor  G.  C.  Caedweee,  -----  Chemistry. 

Professor  James  Law,  -----  Veterinary  Science. 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss,  Emeritus,  -  Botany. 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock,  -----  Entomology. 
Professor  L.  H.  BaieEY,  -----  Horticulture. 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing,  -  Dairy  Husbandry. 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson,  -  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 


I.  P.  Roberts,  - 
E.  L.  Wieeiams,  - 
E-  A.  Buteer, 

ASSISTANTS. 

M.  V.  Seingereand, 

G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Ceinton, 

B.  M.  Duggar, 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
-  Clerk. 

Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogam  ic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 1 7.  Fruit  Brevities. 

1 18.  Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Increasers. 


FOOD  PRESERVATIVES  AND  BUTTER 

INCREASERS. 


The  subject  of  the  preservation  of  articles  of  food  against  de¬ 
cay  is  one  of  no  little  importance.  Decay  or  fermentation  is 
known  to  be  due  to  the  action  of  living  germs  or  ferments.  If 
in  any  way  these  germs  can  be  destroyed  or  their  development 
prevented,  without  any  change  in  the  food  product  itself,  it 
seems  possible  that  food  might  be  preserved  almost  indefinitely. 

Two  conditions  that  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth 
and  multiplication  of  these  germs  are  a  moderate  temperature 
and  moisture.  The  methods  most  generally  used  for  the  preser¬ 
vation  of  food  aim  to  destroy  these  germs  by  depriving  them  either 
temporarily  or  permanently  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  conditions. 
These  methods  may  be  grouped  as  follows  : 

i  st.  Those  depending  upon  the  use  of  heat  for  the  destruction 
of  the  germs  and  subsequent  sealing  to  exclude  other  germs. 
This  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  process  of  canning  fruits  and 
vegetables. 

2d.  Those  depending  upon  the  use  of  cold  to  prevent  the 
multiplication  of  the  germs  for  lack  of  sufficient  heat.  An  example 
of  this  is  found  in  our  extensive  systems  of  cold  storage. 

3d.  Those  in  which  the  food  product  is  dried  in  order  that 
the  germs  present  may  not  multiply  for  lack  of  sufficient  mois¬ 
ture.  The  production  of  evaporated  fruits  illustrates  this 
principle. 

Where  it  is  impossible  to  employ  any  of  the  above  methods,  or 
where  their  use  might  injure  or  destroy  some  desirable  quality  of 
the  food,  resource  is  often  had  to  the  direct  addition  to  the  food 
of  some  substance  that  is  detrimental  to  germ  life.  The  familiar 
process  of  preserving  meats,  especially  pork,  by  salting  illustrates 


400 


Bulletin  h8. 


this  class.  There  seems  to  be  little  or  no  objection  to  the  use  of 
foods  preserved  by  any  of  the  first  three  general  methods,  nor  to 
this  last  provided  that  the  substance  added  has  itself  no  bad  physi¬ 
ological  effect.  Besides  common  salt  the  following  substances  are 
often  used  :  borax,  boric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  benzoic  acid,  sul¬ 
phate  of  soda,  saltpeter  and  formalin.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
they  possess  the  power  of  arresting  the  action  of  germs,  but  there 
is  some  question  about  the  advisability  of  the  continued  use  of 
foods  containing  them.  Inasmuch  as  there  is  some  prejudice  on 
the  part  of  dealers  and  consumers  against  their  use,  frequent 
attempts  are  made  to  introduce  preparations  of  these  substances 
under  new  forms  and  names.  Two  of  these  preparations  have 
been  recently  examined  at  this  Station. 

The  first  bore  the  name 

“  Preservitas,  a  Special  Cream  Preservative.” 

It  is  a  fine  white  powder  that  dissolves  readily  in  water.  The 
following  directions  are  given  for  its  use  :  “  Add  oz.  to  one  oz. 
of  the  preservitas  to  each  gallon  (Imperial)  of  cream,  according 
to  the  length  of  time  it  is  desired  to  keep  it  fresh.  The  smaller 
proportion  will  keep  cream  sweet  and  with  full  flavor  for  a  fort¬ 
night,  and  the  larger  proportion  for  a  month  if  the  cream  is  quite 
fresh  at  the  time  of  the  addition.  It  is  advisable  to  make  a  paste 
of  the  preservitas  with  a  little  of  the  cream,  rubbing  it  into  the 
cream,  and  then  to  add  the  paste  to  the  bulk  of  the  cream. 

Note  :  This  preservative  is  suitable  for  cream  only. 

(Signed)  The  Preservitas  Co. , 

Managers  Burton,  Baker  &  Co., 
no-112  South  work  St., 

Iyondon,  S-  E-” 

An  analysis  showed  that  it  contained  30  per  cent,  borax,  a 
small  proportion  of  salicylic  acid ;  the  remainder  was  sugar. 
Its  preserving  power  is  due,  of  course,  to  the  borax  and  salicylic 
acid.  The  sugar  helps  to  bring  the  borax  into  solution,  as  borax 
has  the  peculiar  property  of  dissolving  more  readily  in  water  con¬ 
taining  sugar  than  in  water  alone. 

The  second  preparation  is  called 

“  Callerine,  the  Ideal  Food  Preservative.” 


Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Increasers.  401 

It  is  a  colorless  liquid  having  a  disagreeable  pungent  odor.  It 
is  a  little  heavier  than  water.  The  following  are  some  of  the  recom¬ 
mendations  and  directions  which  accompanied  the  sample  :  “Cal- 
lerine  is  efficient,  cheap  and  reliable.  One  ounce  of  callerine  is 
equal  to  one  pound  of  salicylic  or  boracic  acids.  Not  only  is  cal¬ 
lerine  harmless  to  human  life,  but  when  any  article  of  food  which 
has  been  treated  with  callerine  is  cooked,  the  callerine  is  com¬ 
pletely  eliminated  by  the  heat. 

General  Directions. 

For  Milk  : — Add  1  ounce  (2  tablespoonfuls)  Callerine  to  14 
gals.  milk.  This  will  keep  it  three  days  at  a  temperature  of  750 
F.  For  longer  keeping  or  warmer  weather,  use  more  Callerine. 

A  solution  of  2  ounces  of  Callerine  to  1  quart  of  water  will  be 
found  an  efficient  wash  for  preserving  meat,  poultry,  game,  fish, 
vegetables,  etc.  Articles  should  be  carefully  washed  with  the 
above  solution,  or,  better  still,  allowed  to  remain  in  solution  for  a 
few  minutes. 

Price:  Gallons,  $ 6.00 

We  are  putting  up  a  Special  Working  Sample  (16  oz.)  which  we 
will  forward  on  receipt  of  $1.25. 

(Signed)  Callerine  M’f’g.  Co., 

44  North  St., 

Philadelphia,  Pa.” 

An  analysis  showed  it  to  be  a  7  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin,  or  for¬ 
mic  aldehyde.  Formalin  is  the  name  under  which  this  substance  is 
ordinarily  sold,  while  formic  aldehyde  is  its  strictly  chemical 
name.  The  use  of  two  names  for  the  same  substance  may  be 
sometimes  misleading,  but  in  this  case  the  two  names  are  used 
similarly  to  the  terms  blue  vitriol  and  copper  sulphate.  Blue 
vitriol  is  the  common  commercial  name  while  copper  sulphate  is 
the  chemical  name  for  the  same  substance.  Formalin  is  at  present 
much  used  as  a  germicide  and  general  antiseptic  and  preserving 
agent.  It  is  sold  as  a  40  per  cent,  solution  and  quoted  at  $.60  per 
pound. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  formalin  is  a  most  effective  preserving 
agent.  Prof.  R.  T.  Thomson  (. Analyst ,  xxi,  p.  65)  shows  that 
it  is  more  effective  than  boracic  acid,  borax,  salicylic  or  benzoic 


402 


Bulletin  ii8. 


acids  According  to  his  experiments  17  grains  per  gallon 
kept  milk  sweet  1 1  days. 

The  40  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.080.  Since  a  gallon  of  water  weighs  about  8 yi  lbs.  a  gallon  of 
the  formalin  weighs  8}i  times  1.080  or  9  lbs.  At  $.60  per  lb.  a 
gallon  of  this  40  per  cent,  solution  costs  $5.40.  From  one  gallon 
of  the  40  per  cent,  solution  5-f-  gallons  of  a  7  per  cent,  solution 
can  be  made.  Therefore  the  difference  in  cost  between  formalin 
bought  as  such  and  callerine  at  $6.  per  gallon  is  : 

1  gal.  formalin  -  -  -  -  $  5.40 

5|-  gal.  callerine  at  $6.  per  gal.  -  -  34.28 

If  bought  in  the  Special  Working  Sample  (16  oz.)  at  $1.25  the 
difference  in  cost  is  : 

1  lb.  formalin . $  .60 

5f-  lbs.  callerine  at  $1.25  -  -  -  7.14 

Or  in  other  words  $34.28  and  $7.14  are  asked,  respectively,  for 
$5.40  and  $.60  worth  of  formalin.  By  purchasing  the  original 
material  at  $.60  per  lb.  and  adding  water  at  the  rate  of  lbs.  to 
each  pound  of  formalin  a  solution  of  the  same  strength  as 
callerine  is  obtained. 

As  to  the  effects  of  formalin  on  digestion  Prof.  R.  T.  Thomson 
in  the  article  above  referred  to  quotes  from  Dr.  Leffmann  “  Pro¬ 
cesses  of  digestion  are  allied  to  processes  of  decomposition,  in  so 
far  that  the  latter  are  frequently  preceded  by  transformation 
under  the  influence  of  ferments.  We  may  infer  then  that  what¬ 
ever  prevents  putrefaction  at  least  delays  digestion.”  While 
there  is  no  evidence  that  evil  effects  have  followed  from  the  use 
of  such  small  quantities  of  formalin  as  are  necessary  to  preserve 
milk,  it  seems  advisable  from  Dr.  Teffmann’s  statement  to  be 
cautious  about  its  use  in  any  considerable  quantity. 

It  would  seem  unwise  to  endanger  the  healthful  condition 
of  the  stomach  and  diminish  the  digestibility  of  cream  and 
milk,  naturally  rated  among  the  most  digestible  food  products. 
That  milk  and  cream  treated  with  formalin  are  injured,  is 
not  founded  upon  theory  but  upon  facts.  Digestion  experiments 
have  been  made  upon  milk  with  and  without  the  presence  of 
formalin.  In  the  cases  so  far  reported  the  milk  containing  the 
formalin  required  a  longer  time  for  digestion  than  that  which 


Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Incrp;asers.  403 

contained  no  formalin.  Furthermore,  the  behavior  in  the  Babcock 
test  of  milk  which  had  been  preserved  by  formalin  shows  that  its 
composition  is  in  some  way  affected.  Ordinarily,  the  curd  of 
milk  is  dissolved  by  the  sulphuric  acid  that  is  used  in  this  test. 
Where  formalin  is  used  the  curd  often  fails  to  dissolve  and 
becomes  a  compact  mass.  If  this  preservative  can  so  alter  milk 
that  sulphuric  acid  may  fail  to  dissolve  its  curd,  is  it  not  at  least 
probable  that  the  action  of  the  gastric  j  uices  of  the  stomach  may 
be  rendered  less  effective  ? 

CHASE’S  BUTTER  INCREASER. 

Agents  have  been  busy  throughout  different  parts  of  the  State 
attempting  to  introduce  the  above  named  substance.  It  was 
guaranteed  to  bring  about  an  increased  yield  of  butter  in  churn¬ 
ing.  A  sample  of  this  substance  was  examined  at  this  Station. 
It  was  a  liquid  having  the  general  appearance  of  vinegar  and  a 
slight  odor  of  oil  of  wintergreen.  The  label  bore  no  name  of  the 
firm  manufacturing  it  nor  any  address  showing  where  it  might  be 
obtained.  It  guaranteed  to  double  the  yield  of  butter  from  cream 
if  added  in  small  proportions  to  the  cream  before  churning. 

It  was  a  25  per  cent,  solution  of  acetic  acid,  which  is  the  acid 
of  vinegar,  and  a  small  amount  of  salicylic  acid.  (Salicylic  acid 
is  a  constituent  of  the  oil  of  wintergreen.) 

The  action  of  acids  on  milk  is  to  curdle  the  caseine.  This  is 
shown  in  the  souring  of  milk  itself  when  lactic  acid  is  formed  from 
the  milk  sugar ;  or  by  adding  vinegar  or  other  acids  to  milk . 
Hence  it  is  plain  what  the  effects  of  Chase’s  Butter  Increaser 
would  be.  The  acetic  acid  would  curdle  the  casein  which  would 
become  mixed  with  the  fat,  and  yield  a  product  that  would  be 
neither  good  butter  nor  poor  cheese. 

A  second  article  of  an  even  more  fraudulent  nature  has  also  been 
sold  by  agents.  It  goes  under  the  name  of  “  Gilt  Edge  Butter 
Compound.  ’ 5  It  guarantees  to  make  two  pounds  of  butter  from 
one  pound  of  butter  and  a  quart  of  sweet  milk.  In  general  the 
directions  were  to  warm  the  butter  until  soft,  mix  in  the  milk  and 
add  as  much  of  the  compound  as  could  be  placed  on  a  one  cent 
piece  and  mix  all  together.  The  resulting  butter  (?)  will  weigh 


404 


BURRETIN  1 1 8. 


two  pounds.  This  ‘  ‘  Gilt  Edge  Butter  Compound  ’  ’  is  a  mixture 
of  about  equal  parts  of  alum  and  soda  with  a  little  pink  coloring 
matter.  It  was  sold  in  ounce  packages  for  $i. 

These  substances  would  act  in  a  similar  way  to  the  acid  in  the 
“  Increaser,”  i.  e.,  by  incorporating  the  casein  and  also  a  consider¬ 
able  amount  of  water  with  the  cream.  This  incorporated  casein 
furnishes  a  medium  for  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  millions 
of  organisms.  It  is  to  remove  this  casein  and  so  get  rid  of  these 
germs  that  butter  is  so  carefully  washed. 

While  the  food  preservatives  may  have  some  valuable  uses> 
as  keeping  milk  samples  for  composite  tests,  there  is  absolutely 
no  excuse  for  “  Butter  Increasers  ”  in  an  honest  community. 
They  are  fraudulent  in  that  they  pretend  to  teach  the  producer 
how  he  can  get  more  butter  from  cream  than  there  is  in  it.  They 
promote  dishonesty  by  throwing  in  the  way  of  an  unscrupulous 
producer  a  means  of  defrauding  his  customers  ;  and  worse  than 
all,  the  use  of  these  “  Increasers  ”  is  an  attempt  to  put  on  the 
market  a  product  which  not  only  cheats  the  producer  but  may 
possibly  endanger  the  health  of  the  consumer. 

George:  W.  Cavanaugh. 


Bulletin  119. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural 


August,  1896. 

Experiment  Station, 


HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 


THE  TEXTURE  OF  THE  SOIL. 


“Men  of  the  greatest  Learning  have  spent  their  Time  in  contriving  Instru¬ 
ments  to  measure  the  immense  Distance  of  the  Stars,  and  in  finding  out  the 
Dimensions,  and  even  Weight  of  the  Planets  :  They  think  it  more  eligible  to 
study  the  Art  of  plowing  the  Sea  with  Ships,  than  of  Tilling  the  Land  with 
Ploughs  ;  they  bestow  the  utmost  of  their  Skill,  learnedly, to  prevent  the  natur¬ 
al  Use  of  all  the  Elements  for  Destruction  of  their  own  Species,  by  the  bloody 
Art  of  War.  Some  waste  their  whole  Lives  in  studying  how  to  arm  Death  with 
new  Engines  of  Horror,  and  inventing  an  infinite  Variety  of  Slaughter;  but 
think  it  beneath  Men  of  Learning  (who  only  are  capable  of  doing  it)  to  employ 
their  learned  Labours  in  the  Invention  of  new  (or  even  improving  the  old  )  In¬ 
struments  for  increasing  of  Bread.”— Jethro  Tull. 


By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 


Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss.  Emeritus, 
Professor  J.  H  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing,  - 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
-  Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
-  Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 

Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ------  Director. 

E.  L.  Williams,  -  -  -  -  -  Treasurer. 

E.  A.  Butter,  -------  Clerk. 

ASSISTANTS. 


M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh, 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

B.  M.  Duggar, 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

112.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 1 7.  Fruit  Brevities. 

1 18.  Food  Preservatives  and  Butters  Increasers. 

1 19.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  i,  1896. 
The  Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir : — This  bulletin  and  its  successor  (No.  120)  are  designed 
to  inaugurate  a  new  type  of  experiment  station  publication.  They 
are  written  for  the  purpose  of  giving  their  readers  a  few  simple 
and  primary  lessons  in  some  of  the  most  fundamental  subjects 
connected  with  the  cropping  of  the  land.  It  is  hoped  that  they 
do  not  contain  a  single  new  fact.  It  is  their  sole  ambition  to 
teach,  not  to  discover  or  to  record.  The  writers  hope  that  they 
may  be  used  as  texts  in  horticultural  societies,  granges,  and 
farmers’  clubs.  It  is  wished  that  they  may  inspire  some  persons 
to  read  further  into  the  subjects,  and  especially  that  they  may 
suggest  the  reading  of  King’s  book  upon  “  The  Soil,”  from  which 
the  bulletins  themselves  have  heavily  drawn.  These  bulletins 
are  published  by  the  State  appropriation  which  was  given, 
(chapter  437,  laws  of  1896),  in  part,  for  “disseminating,  horticul¬ 
tural  knowledge  ”  in  the  Fourth  Judicial  Department  of  the  State. 
We  expect  to  use  them  in  the  schools  of  horticulture  which  are 
to  be  held  under  the  auspices  of  this  State  grant.  If  the  simple 
principles  which  they  attempt  to  enunciate  were  to  be  clearly 
apprehended  by  our  farmers,  all  the  money  and  effort  expended 
in  experimentation  in  this  State  would  be  many  times  repaid. 

U.  H.  Bailey. 


136.  —  The  unproductive  clay  from  which  Sample  I.  was  taken. 


137. — The  good  bean  soil  from  which  Sample  II.  was  taken. 


THE  TEXTURE  OF  THE  SOIL. 


The  other  day,  I  secured  one  sample  of  soil  from  a  very  hard 
clay  knoll  upon  which  beans  had  been  planted  but  in  which  they 
were  almost  unable  to  germinate,  another  sample  from  a  contigu¬ 
ous  soil  in  which  beans  were  growing  luxuriantly,  and  as  a  third 
sample,  I  chipped  a  piece  of  rock  off  my  house  which  is  built  of 
stone  of  the  neighborhood.  All  of  these  samples  were  taken  to 
the  chemist,  Mr.  Cavanaugh,  for  analysis.  The  area  from  which  I 
took  the  hard  and  unproductive  clay  (Sample  I.),  is  shown  in  Fig. 
136.  The  reader  will  not  be  able,  I  think,  to  discover  any  bean 
plants  upon  it, although  the  seed  was  drilled  into  it  at  the  same  time 
as  in  the  soil  which  furnished  Sample  II.  Fig.  137  shows  the  area 
from  which  Sample  II.  was  taken.  This  area  is  only  twenty  feet 
removed  from  the  other,  and  is  of  the  same  original  formation,  but 
it  differs  in  being  in  a  slight  depression  or  “  draw  ”  and  the  soil 
is  in  a  fairly  fine  degree  of  division.  It  is  really  a  good  bean  soil. 
The  samples  of  soil  which  were  actually  taken  to  the  chemist  are 
shown  in  Fig.  138.  The  rock  (Sample  III.)  was  hard  limestone, 
known  to  geologists  as  the  Tully  formation. 

The  chemist  reports  as  follows  : 


Mois¬ 

ture. 

Nitro¬ 

gen. 

Phos¬ 

phoric 

Acid. 

Potash 

Lime. 

Organic 

Matter. 

I.  Unproductive  clay . 

II.  Good  bean  land . 

III.  Lime  rock . 

13-25 

15-95 

.08 

.11 

.20 

•17 

.08 

1. 1 

•75 

2.12 

.41 

.61 

2-55 

3-19 

5-45 

In  other  words,  the  chemist  says  that  the  poorer  soil — the  one  upon 
which  I  cannot  grow  beans —  is  the  richer  in  mineral  plant  food, 
and  that  the  rock  contains  a  most  abundant  supply  of  potash  and 
about  half  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as  the  good  bean  soil. 

All  this,  after  all,  is  not  surprising,  when  we  come  to  think  of 
it.  Every  good  farmer  knows  that  a  hard  and  lumpy  soil  will 
not  grow  good  crops,  no  matter  how  much  plant  food  it  may  con¬ 
tain.  A  clay  soil  which  has  been  producing  good  crops  for  any 
number  of  years  may  be  so  seriously  injured  by  one  injudicious 
plowing  in  a  wet  time  as  to  ruin  it  for  the  growing  of  crops  for 
two  or  three  years.  The  inj  ury  lies  in  the  modification  of  its  physi- 


4io 


Bulletin  119. 


cal  texture,  not  in  the  lessening  of  its  fertility.  A  sandy  soil  may 
also  be  seriously  impaired  for  the  growing  of  any  crop  if  the  humus, 
or  decaying  organic  matter,  is  allowed  to  burn  out  of  it.  It  then 
becomes  leachy,  it  quickly  loses  its  moisture,  and  it  becomes  ex¬ 
cessively  hot  in  bright  sunny  weather.  Similar  remarks  may  be 
applied  to  all  soils.  That  is,  the  texture  or  physical  conditio7i  of  the 
soil  is  nearly  always  more  important  than  its  mere  richness  in 
plant  food. 

A  finely  divided,  mellow,  friable  soil  is  more  productive  than  a 
hard  and  lumpy  one  of  the  same  chemical  composition  because  : 

It  holds  and  retains  more  moisture  ;  holds  more  air  ;  presents 
greater  surface  to  the  roots  ;  promotes  nitrification  ;  hastens  the 
decomposition  of  the  mineral  elements  ;  has  less  variable  extremes 
of  temperature  ;  allows  a  better  root-hold  to  the  plant. 

In  all  these  ways,  and  others,  the  mellowness  of  the  soil  ren¬ 
ders  the  plant  food  more  available  and  affords  a  congenial  and 
comfortable  place  in  which  the  plant  may  grow. 

The  reader  will  now  see  the  folly  of  applying  commercial  or 
concentrated  fertilizers  to  lands  of  poor  texture.  He  will  see 
that  if  potash,  for  example,  were  applied  to  the  hard  lumps  of 
Sample  I.  (Fig.  138), it  could  not  be  expected  to  aid  in  the  growth 
of  plants,  because  plants  cannot  grow  on  such  soil.  If  the  same 
quantity  were  applied  to  Sample  II.,  however,  the  greater  part  of 
it  would  be  presented  to  the  roots  of  plants  at  once,  and  its  effects 
would  no  doubt  be  apparent  in  the  season’s  crop.  The  reader 
will  readily  understand  that  it  is  useless  to  apply  commercial  ferti¬ 
lizers  to  lands  which  are  not  in  proper  physical  condition  for  the  very 
best  growth  of  crops. 

The  poor  or  lumpy  soil  contained  a  greater  percentage  of  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid,  no  doubt  because  of  the  lack  of  humus 
in  the  sample.  As  it  contains  less  organic  matter,  it  there¬ 
fore  has  less  nitrogen  than  the  good  soil  (Sample  II.).  Probably 
because  of  this  less  percentage  of  organic  matter,  this  lumpy  soil 
also  contains  less  moisture  than  the  other.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  these  differences  which  the  chemist  found  in  the  organic 
matter,  nitrogen  and  moisture,  are  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
very  great  differences  in  the  productivity  of  the  two  soils.  The 
chemical  examination  would  have  thrown  more  light  upon  the 
value  of  these  soils  if  a  determination  had  been  made  of  the 


The  Texture  of  the  Soie. 


411 

amount  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  which  is  soluble  ;  but  even 
then,  the  chemist  could  not  have  told,  from  analysis  alone,  how  valu¬ 
able  this  land  might  be  for  any  particular  crop.  Analysis  does  not 
show  how  agreeable  or  comfortable  the  land  may  be  to  the  plants. 
There  is  sufficient  potash  in  the  rock  (Sample  III.),  and  even 
enough  phosphoric  acid,  to  grow  a  crop  of  beans ;  and  yet,  even  if 
I  add  the  nitrogen  and  water  and  make  the  mineral  plant  food 


138. — Sample  I.  Sample  II. 

soluble,  I  cannot  hope  to  grow  a  crop  on  the  walls  of  my  house. 
In  brief,  a  chemical  analysis  of  soil  is  only  one  of  several  means  of 
determining  the  value  of  land)  and  in  the  general  run  of  cases  it  is 
of  very  secondary  value. 

How  can  the  texture  of  lands  be  improved  ?  In  general,  by 
three  means, — by  judicious  plowing  and  tillage,  by  the  incor¬ 
poration  of  humus,  and  by  the  use  of  underdrains.  The  value  of 
simple  tillage  or  fining  of  th^e  land  as  a  means  of  increasing  its 
productivity  was  first  clearly  set  forth  in  1733  by  Jethro  Tull,  in 
his  “New  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry.”  The  premises  upon 
which  Tull  founded  his  system  are  erroneous.  He  supposed  that 
plant  roots  actually  take  in  or  absorb  the  fine  particles  of  the 
earth,  and,  therefore,  the  finer  and  more  numerous  these  particles 
are,  the  more  luxuriantly  the  plant  will  grow.  His  system  of 
tillage,  however,  was  correct,  and  his  experiments  and  writings 
have  had  a  most  profound  influence.  If  only  one  book  of  all  the 
thousands  which  have  been  written  on  agriculture  and  rural  affairs 


412 


Bulletin  119. 


were  to  be  preserved  to  future  generations,  I  should  want  that  honor 
conferred  upon  Tull’s  “  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry.”  It  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  modern  application  of  scientific  methods  to 
agriculture,  and  promulgated  a  system  of  treatment  of  the  land 
which,  in  its  essential  principles,  is  now  accepted  by  every  good 
farmer,  and  the  appreciation  of  which  must  increase  to  the  end 
of  time.  These  discursive  remarks  will,  I  hope,  emphasize  the 
importance  which  simple  tillage  holds  in  agricultural  practice. 

Farmers  do  not  appreciate  the  importance  of  humus  as  an 
ameliator  of  land.  In  farm  lands,  it  is  usually  supplied  in  the 
form  of  green  crops,  stubble  or  sward,  and  barn  manures.  When 
humus  is  absent,  sandy  soils  become  too  loose  and  leachy  and  hot, 
and  clay  soils  bake  and  become  lumpy.  The  different  physical 
characteristics  of  our  Samples  I.  and  II.  are  largely  due  to  the 
greater  amount  of  humus  in  the  good  soil,  and  yet  we  have  seen  that 
the  chemist  pronounced  the  other  soil  richer  in  native  plant  food. 

The  writer  has  much  of  this  hard  unproductive  land,  like 
Sample  I.  What  is  to  be  done  with  it?  To  cover  it  with  com¬ 
mercial  fertilizer  would  be  of  little  benefit.  It  must  first  be  put 
in  fit  condition  for  the  growing  of  crops.  A  crop  of  clover  plowed 
under  would  quickly  improve  it,  but  the  land  is  newly  planted  to 

orchard  and  he  does  not  care  to  seed  it  down.  The  next  recourse 
is  stable  manure.  Of  this  enough  can  be  had  to  cover  the  hardest 
spots.  For  the  rest,  catch  or  cover  crops  must  be  used.  Following 
beans  or  potatoes,  he  can  sow  rye  and  plow  it  under  very  early  in 
the  spring  (see  Bulletin  102).  Now  and  then  he  can  use  a  fall  crop 
of  sowed  corn  or  oats  or  something  of  the  kind.  After  a  time,  he 
may  be  able  to  get  the  land  in  such  a  condition  of  tilth  as  to  secure 
an  occasional  stand  of  crimson  clover.  This  practice,  continued 
judiciously  for  a  few  years,  ought  to  radically  change  the  character 
of  the  land  ;  but  all  this  will  be  of  little  avail  unless  the  plowing 
and  cultivation — which  are  now  so  inadequate — can  be  done  in  a 
timely  and  intelligent  way.  All  this  will  take  time  and  patience. 
He  wishes  that  there  were  some  short-cut  and  lazy  way  of  improv¬ 
ing  this  land  by  making  some  application  of  fertilizer  to  it,  but 
there  is  not.  The  most  he  can  do  is  to  slowly  bring  it  into  such 
condition  that  it  will  pay  to  put  concentrated  fertilizers  on  it.  In 
short,  the  first  step  in  the  enrichment  of  unproductive  land  is  to  im¬ 
prove  its  physical  condition  by  means  of  careful  and  thorough  tillage , 
by  the  addition  of  humus,  and  perhaps  by  under  drainage.  It  must 
first  be  put  in  such  condition  that  plants  can  grow  in  it.  After  that , 
the  addition  of  chemical  fertilizers  may  pay  by  giving  additional  or 
redundant  growth.  T.  H.  Bailey. 


Bulletin  120.  August,  1896. 

/ 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT. 


The  Moisture  of  the  Soil 

and  its  Conservation. 


Page  426. 

By  L.  A.  CLINTON. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL, : 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 

Hon.  A.  D.  White,  ....  Trustee  of  the  University. 
Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -  President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -  -  -  -  Agriculture. 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell,  -----  Chemistry. 

Professor  J ames  Law,  -----  Veterinary  Science. 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss.  Emeritus,  -  Botany. 

Professor  J.  H.  Comstock,  -----  Entomology. 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  -----  Horticulture. 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing,  -  -  -  -  Dairy  Husbandry. 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson,  -  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ----- 
E.  L.  Williams,  - 

E-  A.  Butter,  ----- 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
-  Clerk. 


ASSISTANTS 


M.  V.  STINGERTAND, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

B.  M.  Duggar, 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogam ic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 17  Fruit  Brevities. 

1 18.  Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Increasers. 

1 19.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil. 

120.  The  Moisture  of  the  Soil. 


THE  LESSON  OF  THE  DAISIES: 


No  one  who  has  chanced  to  make  a  somewhat  extended  tour  through  the 
farm  lands  of  any  part  of  the  middle  states  during  the  last  of  June  or  the 
first  of  July  can  have  failed  to  notice  how  large  a  fraction  of  the  area  was 
white  for  the  harvest — a  harvest  not  of  grain,  but  of  Ox-eye  Daisies.  Fields 
of  buckwheat  at  the  height  of  their  bloom  were  never  whiter  than  many 
lowlands  which  once  were  rich  meadows,  and  many  hillsides  which  once 
were  rich  pastures.  The  daisies  are  so  prevalent  and  luxurious  this  year  that 
a  stranger  might  suspect  that  all  the  farmers  had  gone  into  the  business  of 
floriculture,  but  a  few  questions  will  soon  dispel  this  illusion,  for  the  growers 
of  the  daisies  very  rarely  appreciate  their  beauty.  It  is  a  genuine  and  de¬ 
structive  invasion,  and  yet  the  daisies  have  not  conquered  the  meadows  ; 
they  have  merely  stepped  in  to  occupy  and  possess  the  soil  which  the  grass 
had  abandoned.  The  worst  of  it  is  that  the  great  majority  of  the  tillers  of 
the  soil  do  not  apprehend  the  true  condition  of  things,  and  while  they  be¬ 
wail  the  fate  which  forces  them  to  harvest  daisies  instead  of  grain  or  hay, 
they  do  not  realize  the  fact  that  they  have  invited  the  attack  and  encouraged 
the  invaders. 

Occasionally  a  farmer  is  heard  to  ask  how  these  weeds  can  be  killed,  but 
he  does  not  realize  that  if  by  some  rapid  process  they  could  all  be  dispatched 
new  legions  would  fill  their  places  at  once  if  the  conditions  which  they  enjoy 
remain.  What  farmers  need  to  comprehend  is  that  without  some  radical 
mistake  in  the  management  of  their  land  the  daisies  never  would  have 
gained  such  a  foothold.  All  plants,  including  weeds,  settle  and  thrive  where 
the  competition  for  life  is  such  that  they  can  enter  into  it  and  prosper.  A 
good  stand  of  grass  leaves  no  room  nor  any  hope  for  weeds.  It  is  not  in 
well-tilled  fields  that  Canada  thistles  flourish,  but  in  neglected  pastures  and 
by  the  roadsides.  In  the  contest  with  the  best  agricultural  practice  they 
cannot  prevail.  It  is  in  the  untilled  plains  of  the  west  or  in  the  tilled  re¬ 
gions  where  there  is  mile  after  mile  of  plowed  land  producing  only  eight  or 
nine  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  year  after  year,  without  any  rotation,  where 
the  Russian  thistle  is  a  natural  and  inevitable  intruder. 

The  remedy  for  weeds  is  to  keep  the  land  busy  with  a  good  crop  on  it,  and 
this  means  that  the  farmer  must  give  persistent  and  connected  thought  to  his 
business.  If  the  daisies  crowd  out  the  grass,  it  is  because  the  meadow 
has  been  neglected  and  the  grass  has  begun  to  fail,  and  wherever  there  is  a 
vacancy  by  the  failure  of  the  grass  every  enterprising  weed  finds  a  right¬ 
ful  opportunity  to  establish  itself.  If  the  farmer  asks,  therefore,  what  will 
kill  the  daisies,  there  is  one  answer:  better  farming.  Weeds  find  nourish¬ 
ment  and  a  home  wherever  there  is  waste  ground,  which  means  ground  not 
profitably  occupied.  Widespread  areas  of  daisies,  buttercups,  wild  carrots, 
mustards  and  the  like  are,  therefore,  the  types  and  measures  of  the  prevail- 


416 


Bulletin  120. 


ing  ignorance  of  farmers  respecting  the  very  fundamental  principles  of  their 
calling.  The  one  good  thing  that  weeds  can  accomplish  is  to  prove  by  their 
presence  that  there  is  a  weak  point  in  the  established  system  of  agriculture  ; 
the  only  way  to  turn  their  visits  to  advantage  is  to  heed  this  instruction  by 
revolutionizing  farm  practice  and  organizing  some  profitable  rotation  which 
will  exclude  them. 

If  farmers  cannot  interpret  the  teachings  of  the  weeds  it  certainly  would 
be  advisable  for  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  to  help  them  in  this 
particular.  The  existence  of  these  invaders  means  that  what  the  farmers  of 
these  states  primarily  need  is  more  instruction  in  fundamental  matters  con¬ 
cerning  the  handling  of  their  land.  We  are  glad,  therefore,  to  see  that  many 
of  the  stations  are  turning  to  this  subject,  and  that  they  are  doing  more  than 
merely  furnishing  botanical  descriptions  of  the  various  noxious  plants.  The 
Cornell  Station,  for  example,  in  a  bulletin  entitled  Reflections  Upon  Weeds, 
gives  some  sound  primary  instruction  in  agricultural  science.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  both  this  station  and  others  will  continue  work  of  this  sort  even 
if  they  forego  to  some  extent  experimentation  in  higher  fields.  So  long  as 
the  farmer  needs  elementary  teaching  it  ought  to  be  furnished  to  him,  even 
if  it  takes  the  time  of  officials  who  ought  to  be  searching  for  scientific  truth. 
A  late  bulletin  of  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station  upon  the  principles  which 
underlie  the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  deals  with  the  simplest  mat¬ 
ters,  matters  with  which  every  intelligent  farmer  ought  to  be  familiar,  and 
yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  every  word  of  it  is  needed.  The  time  may  come 
in  America,  as  it  has  come  in  some  older  countries,  when  the  common 
schools  instruct  children  in  the  principles  of  agriculture — so  that  in  funda¬ 
mental  points  of  practice  the  ordinary  farmer  will  know  what  to  do,  and  will 
be  able  to  tell  why  he  does  it.  Until  that  day  arrives  every  effort  to  increase 
his  knowledge  of  principles  deserves  encouragement.  — Editorial  in  Garden 
and  Forest,  July  22,  i8g6. 


The  Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir:  This  expository  bulletin  is  submitted,  as  explained  in 
the  prefatory  note  of  Bulletin  119,  for  publication  under  Chapter 
437  of  the  laws  of  1896.  L,.  H.  Bailey. 


THE  MOISTURE  OF  THE  SOIL,  AND  ITS 

CONSERVATION. 


The  conservation  of  soil  moisture  is  one  of  the  most  important 
problems  presented  to  the  farmer  and  gardener.  Hardly  a  sea¬ 
son  passes  in  which  some  important  crop  is  not  reduced  in 
yield  from  twenty -five  to  seventy-five  per  cent  because  of  lack 
of  sufficient  moisture  to  bring  it  to  maturity.  The  soil  may  have 
been  put  in  proper  condition,  plant  food  may  have  been  supplied 
in  the  form  of  fertilizers,  and  all  other  conditions  may  have  been 
favorable  for  the  development  of  a  full  crop,  yet  with  the  supply 
of  moisture  deficient  all  this  labor  and  expense  count  for  little  or 
nothing.  The  questions,  therefore,  arise  “To  what  extent  can 
the  amount  of  soil  moisture  be  controlled?”  “  Is  it  possible  to  do 
anything  to  save  crops  from  the  oft-recurring  droughts  ?” 

The  insufficient  water  supply  is  not  due  to  lack  of  rainfall,  but 
to  its  unequal  distribution.  The  average  annual  rainfall  in  New 
York  for  the  last  seventeen  years  is  34.31  inches.  The  lowest 
rainfall  ever  recorded  in  the  state  was  in  1879  when  only  19.74 
inches  fell.  In  1895  there  was  also  a  deficiency,  only  28.66 
inches  being  recorded.  In  the  arid  portions  of  Kansas,  a  rainfall 
of  20  inches  which  is  well  distributed,  is  reasonably  sure  of  mak¬ 
ing  a  good  crop.  The  loss  there  by  surface  drainage  is,  however, 
very  slight,  it  being  estimated  at  not  more  than  ten  per  cent  or 
about  2  inches,  leaving  18  inches  for  crop  growth.  In  New 
York,  with  a  rainfall  of  from  34  to  40  inches,  nearly  one-half 
passes  off  by  surface  drainage  and  is  lost  so  far  as  immediate  plant 
growth  is  concerned.  Not  only  is  the  water  lost  to  the  crops,  but  it 
carries  with  it  much  of  the  soluble  plant  food  of  the  surface  soil. 
This,  then,  would  suggest  one  important  step  in  the  attempt  to 
store  up  moisture.  This  surface  flow  of  water  must  be  prevented 
and  caused  to  sink  into  the  soil  to  supply  a  reservoir  from  which 
plants  can  secure  moisture  during  the  period  of  growth. 


418 


Bulletin  120. 


How  the  soil  holds  its  water. 

That  a  proper  understanding  of  the  question  may  be  reached,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which 
water  exists  in  the  soil,  and  of  the  part  it  plays  in  the  mysterious 
operations  of  plant  growth.  Water  may  be  in  one  of  three  forms, 
— as  free,  capillary,  or  hygroscopic  water.  The  free  water 
of  the  soil  is  that  which  flows  under  the  influence  of  gravity.  It 
is  the  source  of  supply  for  wells  and  springs.  It  is  not  directly 
used  by  plants  and  its  presence  in  the  soil  within  eighteen  inches 
of  the  surface  is  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  most  cultivated 
crops.  It  is  valuable,  however,  because  it  is  the  supply  from 
which  capillary  water  is  drawn. 

The  capillary  water  does  not  flow  by  gravity.  It  is  the  direct 
source  of  moisture  for  plants.  It  may  be  either  drawn  upwards  or 
it  may  pass  downwards  depending  upon  whether  the  soil  is  drier 
at  the  surface  or  below.  In  time  of  droughts,  the  capillary  action 
of  the  soil  may  be  sufficient  to  raise  the  water  through  a  distance 
of  five  or  six  feet,  its  power  in  this  respect  depending  directly  upon 
its  physical  condition.  If  the  soil  is  coarse  and  cloddy  and  the 
particles  are  not  compact,  then  the  water  cannot  rise  to  take  the 
place  of  that  which  is  carried  off  by  evaporation  or  used  up  by 
plants  in  their  growth.  If,  however,  the  soil  is  fine,  in  good  con¬ 
dition,  and  homogeneous,  the  water  passes  freely  and  continuously 
to  the  surface.  Notice  the  track  of  the  horse  on  the  plowed  ground 

or  the  foot-print  of  the  driver,  and  see  how 
the  moisture  comes  directly  to  the  surface, 
because  the  soil  has  been  compacted  and  there 
is  intimate  capillary  relation  between  its  parti¬ 
cles.  This  moist  surface  shows  that  the  water 
is  passing  off  from  it  into  the  air.  This  obser¬ 
vation  should  teach  a  lesson.  The  soil  may 
be  pulverized  and  made  compact,  but  the  capil¬ 
lary  pores  near  the  surface  must  be  enlarged 
by  tillage  so  as  to  break  the  capillary  con¬ 
nections  and  stop  the  water  in  its  upward  course,  and  thus 
force  it  to  pass  off  through  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  This  loose 
surface  stratum,  two  or  three  inches  deep,  is  the  “  soil  mulch” 
(Fig.  139)  of  which  so  much  has  been  said  in  recent  writings. 


w: 


139 


■The  soil 
mulch. 


Moisture  of  the  Soil. 


419 


It  is  the  one  most  important  means  of  preventing  the  loss  of  water 
from  the  soil.  It  breaks  off  the  capillary  pores  in  the  soil 
structure  and  interposes  between  the  lower  moist  soil  and 
the  air  a  layer  so  loose  that  the  water  cannot  rise  through  it. 
This  mulch  may  itself  dry  to  dust,  but  it  nevertheless  protects  the 
soil  below.  When  soils  become  baked,  the  minute  capillary  pores 
connect  directly  with  the  atmosphere  and  the  evaporation  of  water 
is  very  rapid.  Hence  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the  crust 
be  broken  after  every  rain. 

The  hygroscopic  water  of  the  soil  flows  neither  under  the 
influence  of  gravity  nor  capillarity.  It  is  held  firmly  in  place 
upon  the  particles  of  soil  and  can  only  be  driven  off  by  a  high 
degree  of  heat.  Just  how  important  this  water  is  in  the  growth 
of  plants  has  not  been  determined,  but  it  is  probable  that  during 
severe  droughts  it  may  assist  in  carrying  the  plant  over,  enabling 
it  to  maintain  itself  until  capillary  action  is  restored. 

The  necessity  of  water  for  growing  plants . 

The  importance  of  water  to  the  growing  plant  can  only  be  under¬ 
stood  when  we  apprehend  and  appreciate  how  large  a  part  of  its 
structure  is  composed  of  water,  and  that  even  this  large  percentage 
of  its  composition  is  but  a  fraction  of  the  total  amount  used  in  its 
development.  The  quantity  of  water  entering  into  the  structure 
of  plants  varies  from  sixty  to  as  high  as  ninety-eight  per  cent  of 
their  total  weight.  During  the  entire  period  of  growth,  there  is  a 
constant  giving  off  of  moisture  by  the  foliage,  and  it  must  be 
made  good  by  that  which  is  taken  up  by  the  roots.  By 
experiments  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  it 
has  been  found  that  in  raising  oats,  for  every  ton  of  dry  matter 
produced  there  were  required  522.4  tons  of  water  ;  for  every  ton 
of  dry  matter  of  flint  corn  there  were  required  233.9  tons  of  water; 
for  dent  corn,  309.8  tons  of  water  for  every  ton  of  dry  matter. 
On  plots  at  this  Station,  1.8  tons  of  dry  matter  of  oats  per  acre 
represented  an  expenditure  of  940.32  tons  of  water.  Potatoes 
used  422.7  tons  of  water  per  ton  of  dry  matter.  The  yield  of 
potatoes  on  the  experiment  plots  of  450  bushels  per  acre 

1 

during  the  dry  season  of  1895  represented  an  amount  of  water 
equal  to  1310.37  tons. 


420 


Bulletin  120. 


Just  why  so  much  water  is  required  by  the  growing  plant  and 
how  it  obtains  this  supply  is  not  usually  understood.  It  has 
been  the  subject  of  considerable  research  and  even  now  presents 
interesting  problems  for  further  study.  The  roots  of  the  plant 
are  its  feeders  and  all  the  water  ordinarily  used  by  it  passes  in 

through  these  channels.  The  parti¬ 
cles  of  soil  hold  a  film  of  water  in 
firm  contact.  The  roots  and  root¬ 
lets  of  the  plant,  in  burrowing 
through  the  soil,  come  into  intimate 
relation  with  these  soil  particles 
(Fig.  140).  The  finer  the  soil,  the 
closer  the  relation  established  be¬ 
tween  it  and  the  roots.  The  roots 
are  thus  surrounded  by  a  thin  film 
of  water,  a  portion  of  which  they 
are  able  to  absorb.  The  water 
passes  up  through  the  tissues  of  the 


plant,  carrying  with  it  soluble  plant 
food  which  is  conveyed  to  the  manu¬ 
facturing  or  elaborating  organs,  the 
leaves.  There,  in  the  presence  of 
sunlight,  the  fixation  of  carbon  from 
the  air  takes  place  and  by  means 

140  —A  corn  plant  showing  the  of  the  movement  of  the  sap  the  now 
intimate  relation  between  the  organized  material  is  carried  to  all 
roots  and  the  soil  particles,  growing  parts  of  the  structure. 
From  life.  That  part  of  the  water  no  longer 

required  passes  off  through  the  breathing  pores  of  the  leaf,  called 
stomata.  As  evaporation  is  a  cooling  process,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  this  loss  of  water  has  an  important  influence  in  lowering  the 
temperature  of  foliage  and  in  promoting  the  fixation  of  carbon. 

As  already  stated,  the  plant  roots  can  absorb  food  only  in  the 
soluble  form,  and  the  passage  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  through 
their  tissues  is  necessary  to  furnish  the  supply  of  mineral  elements 
required  by  growth.  Not  only  is  a  large  quantity  of  moisture 
demanded  for  the  direct  use  of  the  plant,  but  its  presence  in  the 
soil  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  plant  food  may  be  rendered 


Moisture  of  the  Soil. 


421 


available.  Few  soils  are  so  lacking  in  fertility  that  they  would 
not  grow  crops  could  the  mineral  plant  food  which  they  contain 
be  unlocked  and  brought  into  fit  condition  for  use.  This  impor¬ 
tant  operation,  as  well  as  nitrification, — or  the  conversion  of  nitro¬ 
gen  compounds  into  the  form  of  nitrates, — can  proceed  only  in  the 
presence  of  moisture.  Crops  plowed  under  for  green  manuring, 
and  barn  manures,  can  be  made  available  only  when  there  is  suffi¬ 
cient  moisture  in  the  soil  to  cause  breaking  down  and  decom¬ 
position.  With  moisture  in  the  soil,  there  is  a  constant  move¬ 
ment  towards  the  plant  roots  to  restore  the  equilibrium,  or  to 
make  good  that  used  by  the  plant.  This  movement.of  the  mois¬ 
ture  brings  to  the  roots  the  soluble  plant  food. 

The  living  root  itself  has  the  power  of  disintregating  and 
decomposing  the  particles  of  soil  and  of  dissolving  and  extracting 
some  of  the  plant  food.  This  powerful  action,  by  which  the 
solid  rock  is  broken  down  and  its  plant  food  liberated  and  by 
which  even  polished  marble  can  be  corroded,  goes  on  only  in  the 
presence  of  moisture.  Supply  the  plant  with  moisture,  and  its 
roots  are  able  to  set  free  from  the  particles  of  the  soil  a  part  of  the 
mineral  elements  required  for  its  growth.  Supply  even  our  sandy 
desert  plains  with  abundant  moisture  and  immediately  they 
change  from  a  desert  to  a  garden. 

An  acre  of  soil  to  the  depth  of  one  foot  weighs  approximately 
1,800  tons.  If  25  per  cent  of  this  is  moisture,  we  should  have 
450  tons  of  water  per  acre.  An  acre  of  soil  to  the  depth  of  eight 
inches  weighs  about  1,200  tons.  If  25  percent  of  moisture  were 
found  here  it  would  contain  per  acre  300  tons  of  water.  Plants 
can  maintain  themselves  with  as  low  as  5  per  cent  of  water  but 
their  growth  seems  to  go  on  most  rapidly  in  soils  whose  water 
content  is  from  13  to  25  per  cent. 

The  conservation  or  saving  of  moisture. 

The  annual  rainfall  in  New  York  is  sufficient  for  the  requirements 
of  plants,  could  it  be  distributed  or  conserved  during  the  growing 
season.  The  experiments  conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agri¬ 
culture  with  a  view  to  controlling  the  distribution  of  rainfall, 
proved  that  it  was  beyond  control  by  any  means  known  at  present. 
Dependence  must  then  be  placed  upon  irrigation  or  conservation 


422 


Bulletin  120. 


of  moisture  to  overcome  the  disastrous  effects  of  drought.  In  the 
arid  and  semi-arid  regions  of  the  West,  where  irrigation  is  success¬ 
fully  practiced,  the  problem  is  apparently  solved,  or  is  at  least 
reduced  to  a  mere  matter  of  co-operation  and  cost.  But  in  the 
Eastern  states,  entirely  different  conditions  are  met.  To  supply 
the  enormous  amount  of  water  required  for  growing  crops  means 
an  outlay  of  money  entirely  beyond  the  individual  means  of  most 
farmers  and  gardeners.  In  the  West  where  irrigation  is  practiced 
most  uniformly,  farmers  are  not  required  to  take  into  consideration 
the  possibilities  of  rain.  They  know  that  there  will  be  no  heavy 
downpour  immediately  after  flooding  their  crops.  But  here  there 
is  no  such  guarantee,  and  to  flood  the  fields  by  irrigation  and  have 
that  followed  immediately  by  a  heavy  rain  might  mean  the  entire 
destruction  or  serious  injury  of  the  crop.  Although  irrigating 
systems  may  be  introduced  in  special  cases,  yet  the  great  depen¬ 
dence,  in  this  State,  must  be  the  rainfall  and  the  conservation  of 
the  moisture  of  the  soil. 

The  means  by  which  moisture  may  be  conserved  are  as  follows  : 

By  plowing  and  tillage, 
mulches, 
underdrainage, 

lessening  the  influence  of  winds, 
applications  of  lime,  salt,  etc., 
rotation  of  crops  to  increase  humus, 
adapting  the  crop  to  the  soil. 

Plowing  to  save  moisture . — As  already  indicated,  the  first  step 
in  the  conservation  of  moisture  must  be  the  preparation  of  the 
soil  so  that  the  rain  will  sink  down  and  not  be  carried  off  by  sur¬ 
face  drainage.  In  many  sections  of  the  country,  especially  in 
the  Southern  States,  the  great  bane  to  agriculture  is  the  surface 
washing  of  the  soil.  Owing  to  shallow  plowing  and  shallow  cul¬ 
tivation,  the  water  is  unable  to  settle  into  the  hard  soil  with  sufficient 
rapidity  and  is  carried  along  the  surface,  producing  those  gullies 
which  are  there  so  destructive  to  farm  lands. 

The  improvements  in  the  plow  have  done  much  towards 
remedying  these  defects,  but  there  is  still  a  large  amount  of 
ignorance  as  to  the  proper  use  of  this  implement.  As  an  imple¬ 
ment  to  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  reception  of 


Moisture  of  the  Soiu. 


423 


moisture,  it  stands  pre-eminent.  Good  plowing  does  not  consist 
— as  ordinarily  supposed — in  merely  inverting  a  portion  of  the 
earth,  but  in  pulverizing  and  fining  it  and  burying  the  sod  or 
refuse  which  may  be  on  the  surface.  The  amount  of  water  which 
a  soil  is  capable  of  holding  depends  directly  upon  the  fineness  of 
its  particles.  Then  that  plow  which  will  break  and  pulverize  the 
soil  most  thoroughly  is  the  one  best  adapted  to  fit  the  soil  for 
holding  moisture.  This  point  is  well  illustrated  by  King  in  his 
book  on  ‘  ‘  The  Soil.”  Hesays,  “Since  each  independent  soil  grain 
of  a  moist  soil  is  more  or  less  completely  surrounded  by  a  film  of 
water,  it  is  evident  that,  other  conditions  being  present,  the  largest 
aggregate  surface  area  may  retain  the  most  water  per  cubic  foot. 
Now,  a  cubic  foot  of  marbles  one  inch  in  diameter  possesses  an 
aggregate  surface  of  27.7  square  feet  while  if  the  marbles  were 
reduced  in  diameter  to  one-thousandth  of  an  inch,  then  the  total 
area  per  cubic  foot  is  increased  to  37,700  square  feet.”  From 
this  it  is  evident  that  the  total  amount  of  water  capable  of  being 
absorbed  by  a  soil  which  is  cloddy  and  lumpy  is  very  slight  in 
comparison  with  what  it  would  be  were  it  in  a  finely  divided 
state ;  and  not  only  is  its  absorbing  power  less  but  its  power  of 
holding  moisture  is  also  greatly  reduced.  King  found  the  rate  of 
percolation  from  soils  of  different  degrees  of  fineness  to  be  as 
follows,  the  column  of  soil  being  eight  feet  in  height : 


Time  of  Percoeation.. 


Size  of  grains. 

Per  cent  lost 
in  1  hr. 

Per  cent  lost  in 

2  hrs. 

Per  cent  lost  in 
24  hrs. 

Per  cent  lost  in 
48  hrs. 

.186  inch. 

9.IO 

IO.45 

13-05 

13  52 

.073  “ 

7-95 

9-47 

12  31 

12.72 

.061  “ 

6.22 

9.21 

II. 71 

n-53 

.045  “ 

I.76 

2.83 

7.64 

8.44 

.032  “ 

1.28 

1. 91 

5-83 

6.79 

This  striking  difference  in  the  rate  of  percolation  from  soils  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness  shows  most  forcibly  the  importance 
of  thorough  pulverization  of  soils  to  increase  their  water  absorb¬ 
ing  and  moisture  holding  capacity. 

A  large  amount  of  water  is  lost  during  the  winter  and  spring 
months  owing  to  the  surface  drainage  of  melting  snows  and  heavy 


424 


Bulletin  120. 


rainfalls.  To  prevent  this  loss,  fall  plowing  should  be  extensively 
practiced,  and  where  the  subsoil  is  very  hard  and  compact  the 
use  of  the  subsoil  plow  may  prove  most  beneficial.  Should 
the  ground  break  up  in  clods,  then  it  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
during  the  winter  without  harrowing  to  more  thoroughly  subject 
it  to  the  beneficial  action  of  the  elements.  But  should  the  soil  be 
in  good  mechanical  condition,  then  some  plants  should  be  growing 
on  it  during  the  winter.  The  importance  of  keeping  growing 
plants  on  the  soil  during  the  winter  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 
They  serve  to  bind  the  soil,  to  take  up  the  plant  food  which  may 
be  soluble  and  liable  to  loss  by  drainage.  If  these  plants  are 
plowed  mnder  in  the  spring,  organic  matter  is  added  to  the  soil. 
In  corn  fields,  wheat  or  rye  may  be  drilled  in  without  plowing  and  it 
will  obtain  sufficient  growth  to  act  most  beneficially  upon  the  soil 
during  the  winter  and  it  may  be  plowed  under  in  the  spring,  hav¬ 
ing  served  its  purpose  as  a  soil  protector.  The  use  of  cover  crops 
for  orchard  lands  is  fully  discussed  in  Cornell  Bulletin  102. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  that  hard  land  which  is  bare  or 

« 

devoid  of  humus  is  very  apt  to  become  puddled  or  cemented  dur¬ 
ing  the  winter  if  plowed  in  the  fall.  In  such  cases,  all  that  is 
gained  by  fall  plowing  is  more  than  lost  by  this  running  together 
of  the  soil. 

On  land  that  has  been  fall  plowed,  work  can  begin  in  the  spring 
several  days  earlier  than  on  unplowed  land.  It  should  be  the 
practice  to  stir  the  surface  soil  just  as  early  in  the  spring  as 

conditions  will  permit,  that  a  soil  mulch 
may  be  formed  which  will  serve  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  water  from  below.  On 
clay  land  it  is  of  special  importance  that 
work  be  commenced  early,  and  yet  on  ac¬ 
count  of  its  peculiar  nature  it  is  the  slowest 
in  drying  out  and  the  last  to  be  plowed. 
This  delay  may  mean  the  difference  between 
a  success  and  a  failure  of  the  crop.  Clay 
soils,  owing  to  their  fine  state  of  division 
and  their  tenaciousness, "are  but  slowly  permeated  by  water  (Fig. 
141).  But  once  saturated,  unlike  sandy  soil,  it  does  not  permit 
the  water  to  pass  off  by'percolation  and  must  wait  until  the  sun’s 


14 1. — Clay  soil ,  show¬ 
ing  its  impermeable 
character. 


Moisture  of  the  Soie. 


425 


rays  and  the  winds  have  dried  off  the  surface  sufficiently  to  permit 
of  its  being  worked,  Then,  to  conserve  the  moisture,  frequent 
shallow  tillage  should  be  given  and  crops  should  be  sown  before 
the  water  has  become  exhausted.  The  slow  passage  of  the 
water  towards  the  surface  by  means  of  capillary  action,  furnishes 
plants  with  moisture  and  insures  a  successful  start,  which  is  half 
the  battle  towards  securing  a  successful  crop.  King  found  that 
the  loss  of  moisture  during  seven  days  from  April  29th  to  May 
6th  was  9. 13  lbs.  of  water  per  square  foot  greater  on  the  unplowed 
than  plowed  land,  equal  to  a  rainfall  of  1.75  inches  or  198  tons 
of  water  per  acre.  Can  it  be  afforded  to  thus  delay  the  spring  plow¬ 
ing  and  the  preparation  of  the  soil  mulch  ?  Then,  the  very  evap¬ 
oration  is  a  cooling  process  and  the  soil, instead  of  becoming  warm 
and  of  a  proper  temperature  for  the  germination  of  seeds,  remains 
cold  and  uncongenial  as  long  as  this  wasteful  process  goes  on. 
With  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  the  difficulty  experienced  in  the 
spring  is  not  so  great.  They  are  both  permeable  to  water  and 
furnish  another  means  for  its  escape  beside  evaporation.  The 
water  passes  off  by  percolation  and  the  soil  soon  becomes  warm 
and  ready  for  the  reception  of  the  seeds.  But  moisture  can  be 
conserved  better  on  clay  lands  than  on  sandy  lands,  because  the 
loss  occurs  chiefly  through  evaporation.  It  is  upon  clay  or  heavy 
lands,  therefore,  that  the  value  of  the  soil  mulch  is  markedly 
apparent. 

Harrowmg  to  save  moisture. — The  harrow,  besides  pulverizing 
and  fining  the  soil  for  the  seed-bed,  is  most  efficient  in  furnishing 
a  soil  mulch.  The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  in  reality  a  cultivator 
and  its  action  is  similar  to  that  of  the  cultivator.  When  used  as 
an  instrument  to  conserve  moisture,  the  teeth  should  penetrate  to 
the  depth  of  about  three  inches,  and  to  produce  the  best  effect  the 
ridges  left  by  it  should  be  leveled  off  by  a  smoother  which  can 
now  be  purchased  as  an  attachment  to  the  harrow.  The  tillage 
of  orchards  by  the  harrow  is  now  practiced  extensively  and  noth¬ 
ing  short  of  irrigation  will  so  nearly  meet  the  demands  of  trees 
for  moisture,  particularly  upon  the  heavier  soils. 

The  Acme  harrow  is  a  most  excellent  implement  on  soils  which 
are  comparatively  free  from  stones  and  rubbish.  The  plow-like 
action  of  its  blades  serves  to  pulverize  the  surface  soil,  to  spread 


426 


Bulletin  120. 


the  loose  mulch  evenly,  and  it  leaves  a  most  excellent  seed-bed. 

The  cutaway  or  disc  harrows  may  be  either  beneficial  or  of  abso¬ 
lute  injury.  If  the  discs  are  so  set  that  they  cover  but  a  portion 
of  the  surface  with  the  mulch,  they  leave  a  ridge  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  wind  and  sun  and  the  rate  of  evaporation  is  greatly 
increased.  The  discs  should  be  set  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
whole  surface  shall  be  stirred  or  covered.  Their  chief  value  lies 
in  their  cutting  and  pulverizing  action  on  clay  soils,  but  as  con- 
servers  of  moisture  they  are  inferior  to  the  Acme  or  the  spring- 
tooth.  Soils  which  need  the  disc  harrow7,  should  generally  be 
gone  over  again  with  some  shallower  tool. 

The  mellower  the  soil,  the  lighter  should  be  the  work  done  by 
the  harrow.  On  most  heavy  orchard  soils,  it  wTill  be  found  neces¬ 
sary  to  use  the  heavy  tools,  like  the  spring-tooth  and  disc  har¬ 
rows,  in  the  spring,  but  if  the  land  is  properly  handled  it  should 
be  in  such  condition  as  to  allow  the  use  of  a  spike-tooth  or  smooth¬ 
ing  harrow  during  summer.  This  light  summer  harrowing,  as 
shown  in  the  cut  on  the  title-page,  should  be  sufficient  to  keep 
dowrn  the  weeds  and  it  preserves  the  soil  mulch  in  most  excellent 
condition.  With  such  a  tool  and  on  land  in  good  tilth,  a  man 
can  harrow  ten  or  more  acres  a  day. 

Cultivators  and  co7iservation  of  moisture. — The  action  of  culti¬ 
vators  is  not  materially  different  from  that  of  the  spring-tooth 
harrow.  The  size  of  the  teeth  should  be  regulated  by  the  wrork 
to  be  performed,  a  many  small-toothed  implement  being  prefer¬ 
able  to  a  few  large  teeth,  where  the  object  is  to  conserve  moisture. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  a  dry  time  the  less  surface 
exposed  the  less  will  be  the  evaporation.  If  a  large-toothed  im¬ 
plement  is  used  to  destroy  grass  and  weeds,  then  it  should  be  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  smoother  to  reduce  the  ridges  and  prevent  loss  of 
moisture.  Ridge  culture  is  only  allowable  when  the  object  is  to 
relieve  the  soil  of  moisture  on  bottom  lands  where  the  water 
comes  very  near  the  surface,  or  for  some  special  crops,  wffiere  a 
high  degree  of  warmth  is  required  early  in  the  season.  In  these 
cases,  it  may  be  necessary  to  throw  up  ridges  to  produce  the 
proper  degree  of  warmth  for  germination,  but  even  then  the  ridges 
should  be  slight.  Nothing  could  be  better  calculated  to  dry  out  a 
potato  field  or  a  corn  field  than  throwing  the  ground  up  in  high 


Moisture  of  the  Soil. 


427 


ridges,  leaving  a  large  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of  sun  and 
wind. 

In  fruit  plantations  which  are  in  a  proper  state  of  cultivation,  a 
small-toothed  or  even  spike-toothed  cultivator  will  be  found  suf¬ 
ficient  to  maintain  the  surface  mulch. 

The  following  figures  show  how  much  the  use  of  the  cultivator 
may  do  to  save  moisture  :  In  our  determinations  of  soil  moisture 
we  found,  on  July  1st,  in  a  plot  where  14,080  lbs.  of  green  forage 
per  acre  had  been  cut  from  one-half  of  it  but  6.73  per  cent  of 
moisture,  while  on  the  open  cultivated  space  between  plots,  within 
five  feet  from  where  the  other  sample  was  taken,  10.54  Per  cent 
of  moisture  was  found.  July  6th  samples  were  again  taken.  The 
percentage  of  moisture  in  the  standing  oats  was  4.07,  and  in  the 
open  cultivated  space  13  per  cent.  This  clearly  illustrates  the 
difference  in  the  amount  of  soil  moisture  retained  by  frequent  sur¬ 
face  tillage  compared  with  that  which  is  found  where  a  crop  of 
grain  covers  the  soil. 

The  roller  in  its  relation  to  soil  moisture  is  an  implement  whose 
value  depends  largely  upon  local  conditions.  There  is  no  tool 
which  requires  more  judgment  as  to  its  proper  use.  On  light, 
loose  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  where  every 
effort  must  be  made  to  solidify  and  pack 
the  particles  closely  together, the  roller  must 
be  used  repeatedly.  The  difficulty  of  such 
soils  is  that  the  spaces  between  the  grains  are 
so  large  that  the  water  is  permitted  to  pass 
through  freely  and  is  lost  by  percolation. 

The  capillary  openings  are  so  large  that  there 
is  very  feeble  rise  of  the  water  to  take  the 
place  of  that  used  by  plants  and  lost  by 
evaporation  (Fig.  142).  The  roller  lessens 
the  size  of  these  pores  in  solidifying  the 
soil  and  the  capillary  force  is  then  strong 
enough  to  draw  the  water  to  the  surface  (Fig.  143).  If,  now, 
the  soil  is  left  in  this  condition,  it  has  been  put  in  the  best 
possible  form  for  parting  with  its  moisture,  and  it  will 
take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  unless  prevented  by 
establishing  a  surface  mulch.  In  seeding  land  in  a  dry 


142. — Coarse  gravelly 
soil ,  showing  its 
loose  structure. 


428  Bulletin  120. 

time  the  soil  should  be  rolled  in  order  to  bring  sufficient 
moisture  to  the  seeds  to  insure  germination.  Where  circum¬ 
stances  will  permit,  the  roller  should  be  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  smoothing  harrow  that  the  sur¬ 
face  mulch  may  be  restored  and  the  moisture 
stopped  before  reaching  the  atmosphere  (Fig. 
144).  On  clay  lands  the  roller  must  be  used 
with  much  caution.  If  used  immediately 
after  grain  is  sown  and  a  heavy  rain  following, 
there  would  be  danger  of  the  soil  becoming  so 
compact  on  the  surface  that  the  tender  shoots 
would  be  unable  to  get  through,  and  the  most 
direct  connection  would  be  established  between 
the  soil  moisture  and  the  air.  A  good  method  of  treatment  for 
clay  is  to  roll  before  the  seed  is  sown,  then 
harrow  and  make  a  good  seed  bed,  and  then 
drill  in  the  grain.  After  the  plants  are  well 
up  the  roller  may  be  used  again,  which  will 
bring  the  water  to  the  surface  where  the  grow¬ 
ing  plants  can  make  use  of  it  before  it  passes 
off  by  evaporation. 

Herbage  mulches. — The  covering  of  the  soil 
by  a  mulch  of  leaves  or  decaying  vegetable 
matter  is  nature’s  way  of  conserving  moisture 
and  of  restoring  fertility  to  the  soil.  Go  to 
any  forest  where  the  leaves  have  not  been 
burned  annually  and  notice  the  mulch  which 
covers  the  soil  (Fig.  145).  The  soil  will  be 

found  to  be  moist  and  loose.  Humus  has 
been  stored  up  and  the  covering  of  leaves 
prevents  the  escape  of  the  moisture  by 
surface  evaporation.  Many  persons  con¬ 
clude  that  because  nature  tills  by  mulch¬ 
ing,  man  should  do  the  same,  but  the  con¬ 
clusion  is  fallacious.  Farm  areas  are  too 


144. — Showing  how 
the  soil  mulch 
should  be  restored 
by  tillage  after  the 
roller  has  been 
used. 


143. — Showing  the 
effect  of  the  roller 
in  compacting  the 
surface  layer. 


145.—  The  loose  mulch  open  and  to  much  exposed  to  searching  winds 
on  forest  soils.  to  allow  of  the  good  results  which  nature  obtains 
in  the  seclusion  and  coolness  of  the  forest.  Even  our  largest 


Moisture;  of  the  Soil. 


429 


orchards  do  not  give  us  forest  conditions.  This  herbage  mulch 
also  induces  shallow  rooting  of  trees,  as  sod  land  does 
(see  Bulletin  102).  In  most  farm  lands,  also,  it  is  necessary  to 
plow  or  move  the  land  at  least  once  a  year  in  order  to  sow  the 
seed  and  harvest  the  crop,  and  this  would  destroy  an  herbage 
mulch.  Aside  from  all  this,  it  is  impossible,  except  in  very 
special  cases,  to  secure  sufficient  herbage  to  afford  an  adequate 
mulch . 

The  humus  of  the  soil  is  the  great  store-house  for  nitrogen  and 
moisture.  It  is  the  accumulation  of  decaying  vegetable  or  animal 
matter  and  its  presence  in  the  soil,  while  not  absolutely  necessary 
to  the  growth  o  j  1  ants,  is  the  factor  which  makes  the  land  con¬ 
genial  for  the  very  best  development  of  the  crop.  The  constant 
use  of  commercial  fertilizers  without  being  supplemented  by 
barn  manures  or  green  manuring  will  so  reduce  the  percentage  of 
humus  in  the  soil  that  its  water  holding  capacity  will  be  consider¬ 
ably  diminished.  This  humus  should  be  liberally  supplied  by 
means  of  cover  crops,  rotations,  and  stable  manures. 

Underdrainage  and  how  it  acts  as  a  conserver  of  moisture  is 
popularly  misunderstood.  It  is  usually  supposed  that  underdrains, 
instead  of  acting  as  conservers  of  moisture,  produce  exactly 
the  opposite  effect.  It  has  already  been  noticed  that  wTater  may 
exist  in  the  soil  as  free  or  capillary  and  that  the  presence  of  the 
free  water  within  eighteen  inches  of  the  surface  is  positively 
detrimental  to  the  growth  of  most  cultivated  plants.  Not  only  is 
it  necessary  that  moisture  be  supplied,  but  also  that  the  soil  shall 
be  in  such  condition  that  the  air  may  have  access  to  it,  for  a  sup¬ 
ply  of  oxygen  is  necessary  to  the  breaking  down  and  decomposi¬ 
tion  of  organic  matter  and  the  making  of  plant  food  available. 
The  underdrain  removes  only  the  free  water  which  may  come  too 
near  the  surface  and  it  leaves  the  soil  above  in  a  porous  condition 
so  that  the  water  of  rainfall  may  sink  down  instead  of  being 
carried  off  by  surface  drainage.  This  rainfall  water  is  not  caught 
and  removed  by  the  drains  in  its  downward  course,  but  the  drain¬ 
age  flow  begins  only  when,  by  the  accumulation  of  the  rainfall,  the 
level  of  the  free  water  has  been  brought  up  to  the  level  of  the 
drain.  Thus  the  reservoir  for  the  supply  of  capillary  water  is 
kept  nearer  the  surface  during  a  drought  and  is  removed  a  proper 


430 


Bulletin  120. 


distance  from  the  surface  during  a  wet  time  to  insure  a  healthy 
and  proper  development  of  the  roots  of  plants. 

Mineral  substances  as  conservers  of  moisture. — Among  the 
materials  of  commerce  which  are  applied  to  soils  as  indirect  ferti¬ 
lizers  are  lime,  gypsum  and  salt,  all  of  which  are  thought  to  act 

as  conservers  of  soil  moisture.  The  appli¬ 
cation  of  quick  lime  to  certain  soils  has  been 
found  to  have  a  most  beneficial  action.  When 
used  upon  heavy  clay  it  causes  a  certain 
adhesion  or  flocculation,  a  binding  together 
of  the  minute  particles,  and  prevents  their 
running  at  time  of  rains  into  a  compact 
hard  crust  (Fig.  146).  It  causes  a  more 
granular  condition,  making  the  soil  looser 
and  more  porous,  allowing  the  water  of  rain¬ 
fall  to  permeate  it  more  readily.  As  a 


146.  —  The  flocculation 
of  the  surface  of  clay 
soils  by  fhe  addition 
of  quick  lime. 


result  of  the  flocculation,  the  pores  of  the  soil  near  the  surface 
are  enlarged  and  it  thus  better  serves  the  purpose  of  a  mulch  to 
hold  in  reserve  the  moisture  underneath. 

On  sandy  soils,  the  difficulty  in  conserving  moisture  arises 
from  the  fact  that  they  are  so  open  and  porous  that  the  water 
passes  through  and  is  lost  to  the  plant.  It  would 
seem  that  an  application  of  lime  here  would  tend 
to  aggravate  the  difficulty.  On  clay,  the  action 
of  the  lime  takes  place  at  or  near  the  surface, 
the  soil  being  so  compact  that  it  is  not  washed 
down  through  the  soil.  In  sand,  the  pores  are 
so  large  that  the  lime  sinks  readily  into  the  soil 
and  instead  of  finding  the  effects  of  its  application 
at  the  surface  we  must  look  for  it  below.  The 
binding  property  of  lime  is  well  known  from  its 
use  in  the  trades.  In  its  passage  down  through  the  particles  of 
sand,  it  does  not  proceed  far  before  it  probably  begins  to  bind  the 
grains  together  and  there  is  formed  a  layer  somewhat  impervious  to 
water  (Fig.  147). 

Frequent  and  small  applications  of  lime  have  been  found  most 
beneficial.  From  twenty  to  forty  bushels  per  acre  will  usually  be 
found  to  give  the  best  results.  On  marshy  and  boggy  lands 


147. —  The  action  of 
lime ,  at  a  few  inches 
in  depth ,  in  sandy 
soils. 


Moisture  of  the  Soiu. 


43i 


which  have  recently  been  drained  but  still  remain  sour  and  full  of 
undecomposed  organic  matter,  the  benefit  derived  from  applying 
lime  is  very  great.  It  breaks  down  the  vegetable  matter,  neutral¬ 
izes  the  acid  and  makes  plant  food  available.  In  this  case,  its 
action  upon  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  more  important  than  its 
agency  in  the  conservation  of  moisture. 

Wi?idbreaks  to  save  moishire. — The  drying  effects  of  the  wind 
are  well  known,  when  it  has  unbroken  sweep  over  a  farm.  The 
loss  of  moisture  from  this  cause  is  very  great.  Windbreaks  are 
not  only  a  protection  in  winter  but  they  serve  equally  well  in  sum¬ 
mer  to  protect  the  fields.  The  hedge-row  around  a  field  is  not 
then  entirely  useless,  since  it  serves  its  purpose  as  a  conserver  of 
moisture.  (See  our  Bulletin  IX.) 

Selection  a7id  management  of  crops  in  relation  to  soil  moishire. — 
Crops  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  adapted  to  the  conditions 
best  calculated  to  furnish  them  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  mois¬ 
ture.  The  grasses  and  grains  thrive  best  on  loamy  or  clay  soils 
where  the  moisture  is  held  and  not  allowed  to  pass  away  by  per¬ 
colation.  On  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  crops  should  be  grown  to 
which  frequent  culture  can  be  given,  for  in  this  way  we  may  aid 
in  bringing  water  to  the  reach  of  plants.  On  sandy  soils  so 
treated,  some  catch  crop  should  be  grown  which  can  be 
plowed  under  for  green  manure,  thus  serving  to  keep  up  the 
humus  of  the  soil.  The  practice  of  growing  crops,  especially 
grains  and  grasses,  in  an  orchard  cannot  be  too  strongly  con¬ 
demned.  (See  Bulletin  102.)  The  soil  should  be  left  bare  in 
early  summer  not  only  that  we  may  harrow  and  cultivate  and 
thus  conserve  moisture  and  set  free  plant  food,  hut  because  the 
loss  of  moisture  from  -the  growing  grain  crop  is  so  great  as  to 
deprive  the  fruit  trees  of  the  amount  necessary  for  their  use. 
Crop  an  orchard  only  for  the  purpose  of  green-manuring.  If 
nitrogen  is  needed,  then  crimson  clover  or  common  clover  may  be 
sown  and  allowed  to  remain  as  a  covering  for  the  soil  during  the 
winter  and  may  be  plowed  under  in  the  spring.  The  surface  tillage 
should  begin  and  continue  faithfully  through  the  growing  season. 

Suggestions  for  determining  the  amoimt  of  moisture  in  soils. 

It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  determine  the  amount  of  moisture 


432 


Bulletin  120. 


in  a  soil.  The  only  apparatus  required  is  a  pair  of  scales  which 
will  weigh  to  grains  and  a  tube  which  can  be  driven  into  the  soil 
for  taking  the  sample.  Such  a  pair  of  scales  can  be  purchased 
for  a  small  sum,*  and  the  tube  may  consist  simpty  of  a  piece  of 
boiler  pipe  about  one  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter  which  has 
had  the  outer  edge  at  one  end  bevelled  down  to  enable  it  better 
to  be  driven  into  the  soil.  Have  a  mark  on  the  outside  of  the 
tube  indicating  eight  inches  or  one  foot  from  the  sharpened  end, 
according  to  the  depth  to  which  it  is  desired  to  take  the  sample. 


The  sampler  used  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul¬ 
ture  (Figs  148  and  149)  is  described  as  follows  :  “  The  soil  sam¬ 
pling  tubes  are  made  out  of  brazed  brass  tubing  about  seven- 
eighth  inch  internal  diameter  and  fifteen  inches  long.  The  tub¬ 
ing  is  No.  21  Stubb’s  gauge.  On  one  end  a  brass  collar  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide  is  sweated  in.  The  end  of  the  tube  is 
then  turned  off  in  a  lathe  giving  a  rather  long  taper  but  letting 
the  point  be  the  full  thickness  of  the  collar.  A  mark  is  cut  into 
the  tube  twelve  inches  from  this  cutting  edge.”  We  have  used 
this  implement  with  much  satisfaction. 

In  determining  the  moisture  in  a  given  soil,  several  samples 
should  be  taken  and  these  samples  thoroughly  mixed  and  then 
accurately  weighed.  Then  subject  the  sample  to  a  heat  of 
212  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  a  few  hours,  then  weigh  and  heat 
again  for  one  hour,  then  weigh  again,  and  continue  this  opera¬ 
tion  until  there  is  no  further  loss  of  weight  by  heating.  The 

*Eimer  &  Amend,  New  York,  make  a  balance  which,  with  weights,  can 
be  purchased  for  about  $3.00. 


Moisture  of  the  Soil- 

difference  in  weight  between  the  ,  original  and  the 
heated  sample  will  indicate  the  amount  of  moisture 
which  was  present.  Divide  the  difference  in  the 
weights  by  the  first  weight  of  the  sample,  to  determine 
the  per  cent  of  moisture  in  the  original  sample  and 
multiply  by  ioo.  The  following  case  will  illustrate  : 


Original  weight  of  sample .  2  lbs. 

Weight  after  drying . . .  1.5  lbs. 

Loss  in  drying  . . . 5  lbs. 


Per  cent  of  moisture  in  original  sample=.5  2.25 
=  .22  X  100  =  22  per  cent. 

An  interesting  line  of  work  for  grange’s  and  farm¬ 
ers’  clubs  would  be  the  investigation  of  soil  moisture. 

The  importance  of  thorough  culture  to  conserve 
moisture  is  so  great  that  if  its  value  was  fully  realized 
we  should  experience  less  trouble  from  droughts. 
Far  better  is  a  season  with  a  deficiency  of  rainfall  if 
continuous  surface  culture  be  given  than  a  season  of 
abundant  rains  with  little  culture.  Much  wiser  is 
he  who  cultivates  a  small  farm  and  cultivates  it  inten¬ 
sively  than  he  who  attempts  to  spread  over  a  large  area 
and  allows  his  crops  to  suffer  from  droughts,  because 
the  moisture  which  they  so  much  need  has  not  been 
saved  by  frequent  tillage.  Neglect  the  soil,  allow  the 
orchard  to  care  for  itself,  and  when  the  time  of  harvest 
comes  the  reward  shall  be  according  to  the  labor  ; 
but  treat  the  soil  as  a  living  thing,  care  for  it  faith¬ 
fully  and  intelligently,  study  the  plants  and  learn  their 
ways  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  thrive  and 
give  them  congenial  surroundings,  and  they  will  re¬ 
spond  with  a  readiness  that  will  abundantly  repay  the 
best  efforts  in  their  behalf. 

*  SUMMARY. 

1.  The  average  annual  rainfall  in  New  York  is  suffi¬ 
cient  for  the  growth  of  profitable  crops.  Owing  to  its 
unequal  distribution  and  to  the  loss  of  nearly  one-half  of 
it  by  surface  drainage,  crops  usually  suffer  from 
droughts. 


433 


149. —  The  soil 
sampler. 


434 


Bulletin  120. 


2.  The  first  step  towards  conserving  moisture  is  to  put  the 
soil  in  such  a  physical  condition  that  it  will  be  pervious  to  water, 
or  afford  a  reservoir  for  it. 

3.  Water  exists  in  the  soil  as  free,  capillary  or  hygroscopic. 
The  free  water  within  eighteen  inches  of  the  surface  is  injurious 
to  the  growth  of  cultivated  plants.  The  capillary  water  is  the 
direct  source  of  their  supply  and  should  be  conserved  by  all  pos¬ 
sible  means. 

4.  Capillary  action  of  the  soil  depends  upon  the  fineness  of 
its  particles  and  the  closeness  of  their  relation  to  each  other.  In 
coarse,  loose,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  the  action  is  weak  ;  in  fine 
well  compacted  soils  it  is  strong. 

5.  When  the  capillary  interstices  or  pores  in  the  soil  are  con¬ 
tinuous  from  the  moist  under  soil  to  the  surface,  the  moisture 
rises  uniformly  and  passes  off  into  the  atmosphere  by  evapora¬ 
tion.  If,  however,  these  interstices  or  pores  are  made  very  much 
larger  near  the  surface,  the  moisture  is  arrested  in  its  upward 
movement,  a  result  which  is  accomplished  by  light  surface  culti¬ 
vation  which  produces  a  ‘  ‘  soil  mulch.  ’  ’  This  mulch  of  loose 
soil  answers  much  the  same  purpose  as  a  board  or  carpet  would 
in  cutting  off  the  direct  connection  of  the  capillary  soil  with  the 
atmosphere.  As  soon  as  the  soil  becomes  baked  or  encrusted,  the 
capillary  connection  with  the  atmosphere  is  renewed,  and  another 
tillage  is  required  to  re-establish  the  soil  mulch. 

6.  A  large  amount  of  water  is  necessary  for  the  plant,  as  its 
food  is  in  a  very  dilute  solution,  and  water  is  also  used  in  build¬ 
ing  plant  tissue. 

7.  Moisture  in  the  soil  is  necessary  that  nitrification  and 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  may  take  place.  Without  it,  the 
action  by  which  the  roots  are  able  to  corrode  the  solid  rock  and 
set  free  plant  food  cannot  take  place. 

8.  The  distribution  of  rainfall  cannot  be  controlled  by  any 
known  means.  Dependence  must  be  placed  upon  irrigation  and 
the  conservation  of  soil  moisture. 

9.  Irrigation  is  expensive  and  while  entirely  practicable  in 
arid  regions,  yet  in  our  section  if  flooding  by  irrigation  should  be 
followed  by  heavy  rainfall  the  effect  might  be  disastrous.  Where 
irrigation  is  not  a  common  necessity,  it  must  be  secured  by  in- 


Moisture  of  the  Soie. 


435 


dividual  enterprise  and  is  therefore  expensive.  In  New  York,wTe 
must  depend  largely  upon  conserving  or  preventing  the  loss  of  the 
moisture. 

10.  The  means  by  which  moisture  may  be  conserved  are : 
judicious  plowing  and  tillage,  mulches,  underdrainage,  wind¬ 
breaks,  applications  of  lime,  salt,  etc.,  and  adaptation  of  crop  to 
the  soil. 

11.  The  absorbing  or  capillary  power  of  a  soil  depends  upon 
the  fineness  of  division  of  its  particles. 

12.  The  plow  is  a  most  valuable  implement  for  pulverizing 
and  fining  the  soil.  Fall  plowing  is  recommended  for  heavy 
clays,  the  surface  to  be  left  rough  and  unharrowed.  Fall  plowed 
lands  catch  and  hold  the  water. 

13.  Surface  tillage  should  begin  early  in  the  spring  as  every 
day’s  delay  after  the  soil  is  in  fit  condition  means  a  loss  of  many 
tons  of  water. 

14.  The  harrow  is  valuable  as  an  implement  with  which  to 
establish  and  maintain  a  surface  mulch.  Frequent  harrowing  of 
an  orchard  will  greatly  lessen  the  evaporation  from  the  surface. 

15.  Where  cultivators  are  used  as  conservers  of  moisture, 
many  fine  teeth  are  preferable  to  a  few  coarse  teeth. 

16.  Ridge  culture  is  calculated  to  promote  evaporation.  To 
conserve  moisture,  practice  level  culture  and  so  reduce  the  area 
exposed. 

17.  The  roller  brings  moisture  to  the  surface  by  compressing 
the  soil.  On  loose  sandy  soils  it  is  useful  by  compacting  the 
particles.  On  clay  its  use  may  prove  injurious  if  followed  by 
heavy  rains.  Where  possible  it  is  well  to  follow  it  with  a  smooth¬ 
ing  harrow  to  restore  the  mulch. 

18.  A  surface  mulch  of  leaves  and  decaying  vegetable  matter 
is  nature’s  way  of  conserving  moisture.  It  also  adds  humus  to 
the  soil,  which  is  the  great  store  house  for  nitrogen  and  moisture. 
An  herbage  mulch  can  rarely  be  used  in  farm  areas,  however. 

19.  Underdrains  act  beneficially  in.  making  soils  porous  above 
them  and  thus  increasing  their  permeability  ;  and  in  removing 
the  free  water  and  thus  allowing  the  access  of  air,  which  is  as 
necessary  as  moisture. 


436 


Bulletin  120. 


20.  Lime,  gypsum  and  salt  are  all  used  as  conservers  of 
moisture.  An  application  of  lime  seems  to  have  a  beneficial  effect 
on  heavy  clay  and  on  light  sand.  It  also  acts  favorably  on 
marshy,  sour  lands. 

2 1 .  Grasses  and  grains  should  be  grown  on  clay  and  loamy 
soils,  leaving  sandy  and  gravelly  lands  for  cultivated  crops. 
The  humus  of  tilled  lands  may  be  kept  up  by  barn  manures  and 
by  green  manuring. 

22.  The  space  between  the  trees  in  orchards  should  be  left  free 
for  tillage.  A  growing  crop  makes  such  a  demand  upon  the  sup¬ 
ply  of  moisture  that  the  trees  may  be  seriously  injured. 

23.  Determinations  of  soil  moisture  may  be  easily  made  by 
anyone.  The  importance  of  this  line  of  work  is  called  to  the  at¬ 
tention  of  granges,  farmers’  clubs  and  horticultural  societies. 

24.  The  importance  of  thorough  tillage  to  conserve  moisture 
cannot  be  made  too  emphatic.  Deficiency  in  rainfall  with  in¬ 
tensified  agriculture  is  preferable  to  abundant  rains  and  neglect  by 
the  cultivator.  The  soil  will  respond  in  a  large  measure  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  treatment  it  receives.  Neglect  it  and  it  will  fail  to 
bring  forth  liberal  increase,  but  cultivate  intelligently  and 
thoroughly  and  it  responds  quickly. 


L.  A.  Clinton. 


Bulletin  121.  September,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

ITHACA,  N. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIV^ON. 


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The  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 


By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 


Hon.  A.  D.  White, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 

Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 

Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  A.  N.  Prentiss,  Emeritus, 
Professor  J.  H  Comstock, 

Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing,  - 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
-  Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 

Botany. 
-  Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 

Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 


I.  P.  Roberts,  - 
E.  L.  Williams,  - 
E.  A.  Butler,  - 


M.  V.  Slingerlakd, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh, 
E.  G.  Lodeman, 

L.  A.  Clinton, 

B.  M.  Duggar, 


ASSISTANTS. 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 


Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Horticulture. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 1 2.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 1 7.  Fruit  Brevities. 

1 18.  Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Increasers. 

1 19.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil. 

120.  The  Moisture  of  the  Soil. 

1 21.  Suggestions  for  the  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Sept,  i,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir  :  The  writer  hopes  that  this  paper  may  contain  some 
suggestion  for  the  betterment  of  home  grounds  in  rural  communi¬ 
ties  ;  it  is  therefore  submitted  for  publication  under  Chapter  437, 
of  the  Laws  of  1896.  L-  H.  Bailey. 


156.  An  effective  piece  of  planting .  See  page  448 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  PLANTING 
OF  SHRUBBERY. 


I.  Some  general  considerations . 

The  trouble  with  home  grounds  is  not  so  much  that  there  is 
too  little  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  but  that  this  planting  is 
meaningless.  Every  yard  should  be  a  picture.  That  is,  the  area 
should  be  set  off  from  every  other  area,  and  it  should  have  such 
a  character  that 
the  observer 
catches  its  entire 
effect  and  pur¬ 
pose  without 
stopping  to  ana¬ 
lyze  its  parts. 

The  yard  should 
be  one  thing,  one 
area,  with  every 
feature  contribut¬ 
ing  its  part  to 
one  strong  and 

homogeneous  150.  77^  common  or  nursery  type  of  planting. 

effect. 

These  remarks  will  become  concrete  if  the  reader  turns  his  eye 
to  Figs.  150  and  151.  The  former  represents  the  common  type 
of  planting  Jof  front  yards.  The  bushes  and  trees  are  scattered 
promiscuously  over  the  area.  Such  a  yard  has  no  purpose,  no 
central  idea.  It  shows  plainly  that  the  planter  had  no  construc¬ 
tive  conception,  no  grasp  of  any  design,  and  no  appreciation  of 
the  fundamental  elements  of  the  beauty  of-  landscape.  Its  only 
merit  is  the  fact  that  trees  and  shrubs  have  been  planted  ;  and 
this,  to  most  minds,  comprises  the  essence  and  sum  of  the  orna¬ 
mentation  of  grounds.  Every  tree  and  bush  is  an  individual, 


442 


Bulletin  121. 


alone,  unattended,  disconnected  from  its  environments,  and  there¬ 
fore  meaningless.  Such  a  yard  is  only  a  nursery. 

The  other  plan  (Fig.  15 1)  is  a  picture.  The  eye  catches  its 
meaning  at  once.  The  central  idea  is  the  residence,  with  a  warm 
and  open  greensward  in  front  of  it.  The  same  trees  and  bushes 
which  were  scattered  haphazard  over  Fig.  150  are  massed  into  a 
framework  to  give  effectiveness  to  the  picture  of  home  and  com¬ 
fort.  This  style  of  planting  makes  a  landscape,  even  though  the 
area  be  no  larger  than  a  parlor.  The  other  style  is  simply  a  col¬ 
lection  of  curious  plants.  The  one  has  an  instant  and  abiding  pict- 
torial  effect,  which  is  restful  and  satisfying:  the  observer  exclaims, 

‘  ‘  What  a  beau¬ 
tiful  home  this 
is  !  ’  ’  The  other 
piques  one’s  cu¬ 
riosity,  obscures 
the  residence, 
divides  and  dis¬ 
tracts  the  atten- 
.  tion  :  the  obser¬ 
ver  exclaims, 
“  What  excel¬ 
lent  lilac  bushes 
these  are  !  ’  ’ 

15 1.  The  proper  or  pictorial  type  of  planting.  jf  reader 

catches  the  full  meaning  of  these  contrasts,  he  has  acquired  the 
first  and  most  important  conception  in  landscape  gardening.  The 
conception  will  grow  upon  him  day  by  day  ;  and  if  he  is  of  an 
observing  turn  of  mind,  he  will  find  that  this  simple  lesson  will 
revolutionize  his  habit  of  thought  respecting  the  planting  of 
grounds  and  the  beauty  of  landscapes.  He  will  see  that  a  bush 
or  flower-bed  which  is  no  part  of  any  general  purpose  or  design — 
that  is,  which  does  not  contribute  to  the  making  of  a  picture — 
might  better  never  have  been  planted.  For  myself,  I  had  rather 
have  a  bare  and  open  pasture  than  such  a  yard  as  that  shown  in 
Fig.  150,  even  though  it  contained  the  choicest  plants  of  every 
land.  The  pasture  would  at  least  be  plain  and  restful  and  un¬ 
pretentious.  It  would  be  nature-like  and  sweet.  But  the  yard 
would  be  full  of  effort  and  fidget. 


152.  A  native  mass  oj  shrubbery ,  oj  elders,  hawthorns,  brambles,  and  the  like. 


444 


Bulletin  121. 


Reduced  to  a  single 
expression,  all  this 
means  that  the  great¬ 
est  artistic  value  in 
shrubbery  lies  in  the 
effect  of  the  mass,  and 
not  in  the  individual 
shrub.  A  mass  has 
the  greater  value  be¬ 
cause  it  presents  a 
much  greater  range 
and  variety  of  forms, 
colors,  shades  and  tex¬ 
tures,  because  it  has 
sufficient  extent  or  di¬ 
mensions  to  add  struc¬ 
tural  character  to  a 
place,  and  because  its 
features  are  so  con¬ 
tinuous  and  so  well 
blended  that  the  mind 
is  not  distracted  by 
incidental  and  irrele¬ 
vant  ideas.  A  couple 
of  pictures  will  ad¬ 
mirably  illustrate  all 
this.  Fig.  152  is  a 
picture  of  a  natural 
copse.  It  stretches 
across  a  vale,  and 
makes  a  lawn  of  the 
bit  of  meadow  which 
lies  in  front  of  it.  The 
landscape  has  become 
so  small  and  so  well 
defined  by  this  bank 
of  verdure  that  it  has. 
great,  bare,  open  mead- 


The  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 


445 


ows  are  too  i  1 1  - 
defined  and  too 
extended  to  give 
any  domestic  air ; 
but  here  is  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  meadow 
set  off  into  an  area 
which  one  can  com¬ 
pass  with  his  affec¬ 
tions. 

This  mass  in  Fig. 
152  has  its  own  in¬ 
trinsic  merits,  as 
well  as  its  office  in  £ 
defining  a  bit  of 
nature.  One  is  at-  ^ 
tracted  by  the  care-  ^ 
lessness  of  its  ar-  a 
r  a  n  ge  m  e  n  t,  the  §• 
irregularity  of  its  a. 
sky-line,  the  bold  S' 
bays  and  promon- 
tories,  and  the  in-  ^ 
finite  play  of  light  ^ 
and  shade.  The  § 
observer  is  interest-  ps 
ed  in  it  because  it 
has  character,  or 
features  which  no 
other  mass  in  all 
the  world  possesses, 

He  knows  that  the 
birds  build  their 
nests  in  it,  and  the 
rabbits  find  i t  a 
happy  covert. 

Now  let  the  read¬ 
er  turn  to  Fig.  153, 


446 


Bulletin  121. 


which  is  a  picture  of  an  “improved  ”  city  yard.  Here  there  is 
no  structural  strength  to  the  planting,  no  defining  of  the  area,  no 
continuous  flow  of  the  form  and  color.  Every  bush  is  what 
every  other  one  is  or  may  be,  and  there  are  hundreds  like  them  in 
the  same  town.  The  birds  shun  them.  Only  the  bugs  find  any 
happiness  in  them.  The  place  has  no  fundamental  design  or 
idea,  no  lawn  upon  which  a  picture  can  be  constructed. 


155.  The  three  guardsmen. 

This  leads  me  to  say  that  if  a  landscape  is  a  picture,  it  must 
have  a  canvas.  This  canvas  is  the  greensward.  Upon  this,  the 
artist  paints  with  tree  and  bush  and  flower  the  same  as  the 
painter  does  upon  his  canvas  with  brush  and  pigments.  The  op¬ 
portunity  for  artistic  composition  and  structure  is  nowhere  so 
great  as  in  the  landscape  garden,  because  no  other  art  has  such  a 
limitless  field  for  the  expression  of  its  emotions.  It  is  not 
strange,  if  this  be  true,  that  there  have  been  few  great  landscape 
gardeners,  and  that,  falling  short  of  art,  the  landscape  gardener  too 
often  works  in  the  sphere  of  the  artisan.  There  can  be  no  rules 
for  landscape  gardening,  any  more  than  there  can  be  for  painting 


The  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 


447 


or  sculpture.  The  operator  may  be  taught  how  to  hold  the  brush 
or  strike  the  chisel  or  plant  the  tree,  but  he  remains  an  operator  ; 
the  art  is  intellectual  and  emotional  and  will  not  confine  itself  in 
precepts. 

The  making  of  a  good  and  spacious  lawn,  then,  is  the  very  first 
practical  consideration  in  a  landscape  garden.  This  provided, 
the  gardener  conceives  what  is  the  dominant  and  central  fea¬ 
ture  in  the  place,  and  then  throws  the  entire  premises  into  subor¬ 
dination  with  this  feature.  In  home  grounds  this  central  feature 
is  the  house.  To  scatter  trees  and  bushes  over  the  area  defeats 
the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  place, — the  purpose  to  make 
every  part  of  the  grounds  lead  up  to  the  home  and  to  accentuate 
its  homelikeness.  Keep  the  center  of  the  place  open.  Plant  the 
borders.  Avoid  all  disconnected,  cheap,  patchy,  and  curious 
effects. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  bushes  be  planted  in  masses.  They 
must  be  kept  in  masses  by  letting  them  grow  freely  in  a  natural 
manner.  The  pruning-knife  is  the  most  inveterate  enemy  of 
shrubbery.  Pictures  154  and  155  illustrate  what  I  mean.  The 
former  represents  a  good  group  of  bushes  so  far  as  arrangement  is 
concerned,  but  it  has  been  ruined  by  the  shears.  The  attention 
of  the  observer  is  instantly  arrested  by  the  individual  bushes. 
Instead  of  one  free  and  expressive  object,  there  are  several  stiff 
and  expressionless  ones.  If  the  observer  stops  to  consider  his  own 
thoughts  when  he  comes  upon  such  a  collection,  he  will  likely 
find  himself  counting  the  bushes ;  or,  at  least,  he  will  be  making 
mental  comparisons  of  the  various  bushes  and  wondering  why 
they  are  not  all  sheared  to  be  exactly  alike.  Fig.  155  shows 
how  the  same  “  artist  ”  has  treated  two  deutzias  and  a  juniper. 
Much  the  same  effects  could  have  been  secured,  and  with  much 
less  trouble,  by  laying  two  flour  barrels  end  to  end  and  standing 
a  third  one  between  them. 

I  must  hasten  to  say  that  I  have  not  the  slightest  objection  to 
the  shearing  of  trees.  The  only  trouble  is  in  calling  the  practice 
art,  and  in  putting  the  trees  where  people  must  see  them.  If  the 
operator  simply  calls  the  business  shearing,  and  puts  the  things 
where  he  and  others  who  like  them  may  see  them,  objection  could 
not  be  raised.  Some  persons  like  painted  stones,  others  like  iron 


448 


Bulletin  121. 


bulldogs  in  the  front  yard  and  the  word  “  welcome  ”  worked  into 
the  door-mat,  and  others  like  barbered  trees.  So  long  as  these 
likes  are  purely  personal,  it  would  seem  to  be  better  taste  to  put 
such  curiosities  in  the  back  yard,  where  the  owner  may  admire 
them  without  molestation. 

I  do  not  mean  to  discourage  the  use  of  flowers  and  bright  foli¬ 
age  and  striking  forms  of  vegetation  ;  but  these  things  are  never 
primary  considerations  in  a  good  place.  The  structural  elements 
of  the  place  are  designed  first.  The  flanking  and  bordering 
masses  are  then  planted.  Finally,  the  flowers  and  accessories  are 
put  in,  in  just  the  same  way  that  a  house  is  painted  after  it  is 
built.  Flowers  appear  to  best  advantage  when  seen  against  a 
background  of  foliage,  and  they  are  then,  also,  an  integral  part 
of  the  picture.  The  flower  garden,  as  such,  should  be  at  the  rear 
or  side  of  a  place,  the  same  as  all  other  strictly  personal  appur¬ 
tenances  are  ;  but  flowers  and  bright  leaves  may  be  freely  scat¬ 
tered  along  the  borders  and  near  the  foliage  masses.  Fig  156  (at 
the  beginning  of  the  bulletin)  is  a  model  in  this  respect. 

What  kinds  of  shrubs  and  flowers  shall  I  plant?  This  is  a  wholly 
secondary  and  largely  personal  consideration.  Be  sure  that  the 
main  plantings  are  made  up  of  hardy  and  vigorous  species,  and 
have  lots  of  them.  Then  get  the  things  which  you  like.  I  like 
bull-thistles,  lilacs,  hollyhocks,  burdocks,  rhubarb,  dogwoods, 
spireas,  elders  and  such  careless  things.  But  others  have  better 
tastes.  There  is  endless  merit  in  the  choice  of  species,  but  the 
point  I  want  to  emphasize  is  that  the  arrangement  or  disposition 
of  the  plants  is  far  more  important  than  the  kinds. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  appreciation  of  foliage  effects  in  the 
landscape  is  a  higher  type  of  feeling  than  the  desire  for  mere 
color.  Flowers  are  transitory,  but  foliage  and  plant  forms  are 
abiding.  The  common  roses  have  very  little  value  for  landscape 
planting,  because  the  foliage  and  habit  of  the  rose  bush  are  not 
attractive,  the  leaves  are  inveterately  attacked  by  bugs,  and  the 
blossoms  are  fleeting.  Some  of  the  wild  roses  and  the  Japanese  Rosa 
rugosa,  however,  have  distinct  merit  for  mass  effects.  Wild 
bushes  are  nearly  always  attractive  when  planted  in  borders  and 
groups.  They  improve  in  appearance  under  cultivation,  because 
they  are  given  a  better  chance  to  grow.  In  wild  nature,  there  is 


157-  A  little  weedland  alongside  a  rear  walk. 


450 


Bulletin  121. 


such  a  fierce  struggle  for  existence  that  plants  usually  grow  to 
few  or  single  stems  and  they  are  sparse  and  scraggly  in  form  ; 
but  once  given  all  the  room  they  want  and  a  good  soil,  and  they 
become  luxurious,  full  and  comely.  In  most  home  grounds  in 
this  state,  the  body  of  the  planting  may  be  very  effectively  made 
by  the  use  of  bushes  taken  from  adjacent  woods  and  fields.  The 
masses  may  then  be  enlivened  by  the  addition  here  and  there  of 
cultivated  bushes,  and  the  planting  of  flowers  and  herbs  about 


158.  A  front  yard  before  planting. 

the  borders.  It  is  not  essential  that  one  know  the  names  of  these 
wild  bushes,  although  a  knowledge  of  their  botanical  features 
will  add  greatly  to  the  pleasure  of  growing  them.  Neither  will 
they  look  common  when  transferred  to  the  lawn.  There  are 
very  few  people  who  know  even  the  commonest  wild  bushes 
intimately,  and  the  bushes  change  so  much  in  looks  when 
removed  to  rich  grounds  that  few  people  recognize  them.  I  have 
a  mass  of  shrubbery  which  is  much  admired,  and  visitors  are  al¬ 
ways  asking  me  what  the  bushes  are  ;  yet  I  dug  the  roots  in  the 
neighborhood. 


159*  The  same  front  yard  {Fig.  158)  after  planting. 


452 


Bulletin  121. 


Wholly  aside  from  any 
artistic  value,  a  simple  col¬ 
lection  of  common  wild 
plants  is  always  full  of  in¬ 
terest  and  merit.  Fig.  157 
shows  a  plantation  which 
answers  the  double  purpose 
of  a  wild  garden  and  a  bor¬ 
der  mass-planting.  The 
area  is  about  three  feet  wide 
and  ninety  feet  long,  and  l6°’  A  Sood  combination. 

lies  along  one  side  of  a  small  back  yard  (seen  in  Fig.  164).  The 
soil  was  originally  a  most  tough  and  obstinate  clay,  so  hard  that 


161. 


A  “ JilL ”  in  a  back  yard. 


162.  The  same  “fill"  four  years  later. 


The  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 


453 


even  yet  annual  plants  can  scarcely  be  made  to  grow  in  it.  Plants 
have  been  brought  from  the  wild  at  odd  times  and  set  promiscu¬ 
ously  in  the  border,  and  it  now  contains  over  one-hundred  distinct 


species.  Every  day  from  April  to  October  there  are  flowers  in  it, 
and  every  spring  it  renews  itself  with  scarcely  a  care  on  the  part 
of  the  owner.  To  be  sure,  there  are  some  weeds  in  it,  but  then, 


454 


Bulletin  121. 


the  weeds  are  a  part  of  the  collection!  A  well  grown  bull-thistle 
in  such  a  place  is  worth  more  than  a  bushel  of  potatoes.  These 
plants  have  been  lifted  from  the  fields  in  the  most  careless  fashion. 
A  noble  plant  of  the  pink-hearted  Spiraea  lobata  was  pulled  from 
a  swamp  in  July  when  it  was  in  full  bloom  ;  the  bluebells  have 


163.  The  beginning  of  a  back  yard. 

been  stolen  from  cliffs  without  regard  to  time  or  season ;  some  of 
the  roots  were  carried  in  the  pocket  for  hours  before  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  came  for  planting,  and  this,  too,  in  the  height  of  summer. 
Of  course,  some  plants  have  resented  this  treatment,  but  the  bor¬ 
der  is  a  happy  family  and  it  is  all  the  better  and  more  personal 
because  it  is  the  result  of  moments  of  relaxation. 

I  have  spoken  of  this  choice  little  weedland  to  show  how 
simple  and  easy  a  thing  it  is  to  make  an  attractive  mass-planta¬ 
tion.  Just  set  aside  a  bit  of  ground  in  the  right  place,  spade  it 
up  and  make  it  rich,  and  then  set  plants  in  it.  That  is  all  there 


164.  The  same  back  yard  ( Fig .  163)  four  years  later. 


456 


Bulletin  121. 


is  of  it.  You  will  not  get  it  to  suit  you  the  first  year,  and  per¬ 
haps  not  the  second  one.  You  can  always  pull  out  plants  and 
put  more  in.  I  should  be  sorry  if  it  did  perfectly  suit  you,  for  I 
should  then  feel  that  you  had  lost  interest  in  it.  I  should  never 
want  a  lawn-garden  if  I  could  not  change  it  a  little  or  plant  some¬ 
thing  new  each  year. 

A  word  should  be  said  about  just  how  to  make  a  group.  Dig 
up  the  entire  area.  Never  set  the  bushes  in  holes  dug  in  the 
sod.  Spade  up  the  ground,  set  the  bushes  thick,  hoe  them, 
and  then  let  them  go.  If  you  do  not  like  the  bare  earth  between 
them,  sow  in  the  seeds  of  hardy  annual  flowers,  like  phlox,  petunia, 
alyssum  and  pinks.  The  person  who  plants  his  shrubs  in  holes 
in  the  sward  does  not  seriously  mean  to  make  any  foliage  mass, 
and  it  is  likely  that  he  does  not  know  what  relation  the  border-mass 
has  to  artistic  planting.  I  have  said  to  plant  the  bushes  thick. 
This  is  for  quick  effect.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  thin  the  planta¬ 
tion  if  it  becomes  too  thick.  I  should  generally  plant  all  common 
bushes  as  close  as  two  feet  apart  each  way,  especially  if  I  get  most 
of  them  from  the  fields  so  that  I  do  not  have  to  buy  them. 

2.  Some  specific  examples. 

All  these  remarks  will  mean  more  if  the  reader  is  shown  some 
concrete  examples.  I  have  selected  a  few  cases,  not  because 
they  are  the  best  or  even  because  they  are  good  enough  for 
models,  but  because  they  lay  in  my  way  and  illustrate  what  I 
desire  to  teach.  We  will  first  look  at  a  very  ordinary  front  yard. 
Fig.  158  shows  the  yard  as  it  looked  before  the  shrubbery  was 
planted.  The  large  tree  seen  in  the  fore-ground  at  the  left,  and 
the  spruce,  were  removed.  A  little  sprig  of  exochorda  had  been 
planted  the  year  before  and  is  now  carefully  guarded  by  stakes. 
Four  years  later  sees  the  yard  as  shown  in  Fig.  159.  The  little 
exochorda  has  now  grown  to  be  the  large  bush  in  the  very  fore¬ 
ground  with  the  child’s  tricycle  behind  it,  and  the  porch  founda¬ 
tion  is  screened  and  a  border  is  thereby  given  to  the  lawn.  The 
length  of  this  planting  from  end  to  end  is  about  fourteen  feet, 
with  a  projection  towards  the  front,  on  the  left,  of  ten  feet.  In 
the  bay  at  the  base  of  this  projection  the  planting  is  only  two 
feet  wide,  and  from  here  it  gradually  swings  out  to  the  steps, 
eight  feet  wide.  The  prominent  large-leafed  plant  near  the  steps 


The  Planting  of  Shrubbery.  457 

is  a  bramble  very  common  in  the  neighborhood,  Rubus  odoratus, 
and  it  is  a  choice  plant  for  decorative  planting.  The  plants  in 
this  tangle  in  front  of  the  porch  are  all  from  the  wild,  and  com¬ 
prise  a  prickly  ash,  several  plants  of  two  wild  osiers  or  dog¬ 
woods,  a  spice  bush,  rose,  wild  sunflowers  and  asters  and  golden- 
rods.  The  promontory  at  the  left  is  a  more  ambitious  but  less 
effective  mass.  It  contains  the  exochorda,  a  reed,  variegated 

elder,  sacaline,  variegated 
dogwood,  tansy,  and  a 
young  tree  of  wild  crab. 
At  the  rear  of  the  planta¬ 
tion,  next  the  house,  one 
sees  a  tall  pear  tree. 

The  best  single  part  of 
the  planting  is  the  reed 
(Arundo  Donax)  overtop¬ 
ping  the  exochorda.  The 
photograph  (Fig.  159)  was 
taken  early  in  summer  be¬ 
fore  the  reed  had  become 
conspicuous,  but  Fig.  160 
shows  it  as  the  artist  saw 
it  in  September. 

It  became  necessary  to 
fill  a  little  “run”  in  a  back 
yard.  Fig.  161  shows  how  it  looked.  The  soil  was  the  hardest 
clay.  Rubus  cratsegifolius  was  planted  on  the  bank,  which  it  soon 
covered  with  an  impenetrable  tangle.  Wild  osiers,  some  aspar¬ 
agus  plants,  sedges,  a  sumac  bush,  and  other  common  things 
were  put  in,  and  the  aspect  changed  to  that  of  Fig.  162. 

A  person  had  a  back  yard  shown  in  Fig.  163.  It  was  an  un¬ 
promising  subject.  The  clay  was  of  the  vilest  kind.  The  owner 
wanted  a  tennis  court,  and  the  yard  is  so  small  as  not  to  allow  of 
wide  planting  at  the  borders.  However,  something  could  be  done 
as  shown  in  the  sequel  (Fig.  164).  Upon  the  left  is  the  weed- 
land  border,  shown  from  the  other  end  in  Fig.  157.  A  diagram 
(Fig.  165)  will  show  what  has  happened.  In  the  first  place,  a 
go  »d  lawn  was  made.  In  the  second  place,  no  walks  or  drives 


165.  Diagram,  of  Fig .  164.  50x90  ft. 


45§ 


Bulletin  121 


were  laid  in  the  area.  The  drive  for  grocers’  wagon  and  coal  is 
seen  in  the  rear,  ninety  feet  from  the  house.  From  I  to  J  is  the 
weedland,  separating  the  area  from  the  neighbor’s  premises. 


166.  The  vine-covered  cabin  in  which  drawings  for  Cornell  bulletins  are  made. 


The  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 


459 


Near  I  is  a  clump  of  roses.  At  K  is  a  large  bunch  of  golden-rods. 
H  marks  a  clump  of  yucca.  G  is  a  cabin,  of  which  I  will  speak 
later.  From  G  to  F  is  an  irregular  border,  about  six  feet  wide, 
containing  barberries,  forsythias,  wild  elder,  and  other  bushes. 
D  E  is  a  screen  of  Russian  mulberry,  setting  off  the  clothes  yard 
from  the  front  lawn.  Near  the  back  porch,  at  the  end  of  the 


167.  A  rustic  corner. 


screen,  is  an  arbor  covered  with  wild  grapes,  making  a  playhouse 
for  the  children.  A  clump  of  lilacs  stands  at  A.  At  B  is  a  vine- 
covered  screen,  serving  as  a  hammock  support.  The  lawn  made 
and  the  planting  dohe,  it  was  next  necessary  to  lay  the  walks. 
These  are  wholly  informal  affairs,  made  by  sinking  a  plank  ten 
inches  wide  into  the  ground  to  a  level  with  the  sod.  The  border 
plantings  of  this  yard  are  too  straight  and  regular  for  the  most 
artistic  results,  but  this  was  necessary  in  order  not  to  encroach 


460 


Bulletin  12  i 


upon  the  cen¬ 
tral  space.  Yet 
the  reader  will 
no  doubt  agree 
that  this  yard 
is  much  better 
than  it  could  be 
made  by  any 
system  of  scat¬ 
tered  and  spot- 
t  e  d  planting. 

Let  him  imag¬ 
ine  how  a  glow¬ 
ing  carpet-bed 
would  look  set  down  in  the  center  of  this  lawn! 

The  cabin  which  stands  at  G  in  Fig.  165  is  shown  in  perspec¬ 
tive  in  Figs.  166  and  167.  This  is  a  rustic  bark-covered  struc¬ 
ture  which  was  built  to  add  picturesqueness  to  the  area.  The 
front  view,  Fig.  166,  shows  the  use  of  the  two  best  arbor  vines  yet 
introduced  into  this  country, — the  Japanese  actinidia  and  akebia. 


169.  A  newly  made  landscape  garden,  ready  for  the  border  planting. 


j 68.  The  central  open  space  and  the  mass-flanked  sides. 


170.  Five  year' s  growth  upon  the  area  shown  in  Fig .  169.  On  the  Cornell  horticultural  grounds. 


I 


462 


Bulletin  121. 


These  vines  are  most  vigorous,  perfectly  hardy,  free  of  insect 
and  fungous  injuries  and  of  extraordinary  attractiveness  in  foliage 
and  habit.  The  picture  also  shows  the  yucca  group  which  is  lo¬ 
cated  at  H  in  Fig.  165.  The  cabin  is  shown  at  rear  view  in  Fig. 
167  ;  and  the  reader  will  be  interested  to  know  that  the  plant¬ 
ing  in  the  rear  of  this  cabin  is  a  part  of  the  shrubbery  shown  in 
Fig.  162. 

These  various  pictures  will  fix  in  the  reader’s  mind  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  a  simple  structural  design  for  the  home  grounds.  The 
essential  elements  of  this  design  are  the  open  center  and  the  well- 
planted  sides.  It  is  particularly  important  that  the  view  to  and 
from  the  front  of  the  dwelling  house  be  kept  open,  for  otherwise 
there  can  be  little  conception  of  pictorial  effect  in  the  composition. 
It  is  a  grave  mistake  to  cover  up  or  to  obscure  the  one  central  and 
important  feature  of  the  place.  This  principle  is  well  shown  in 
Fig.  168.  This  architectural  composition  would  have  little  place 
or  merit  in  the  landscape  if  the  foreground  were  promiscuously 
planted. 

Let  us  now  see  how  this  principle  may  be  applied  to  a  very 
ordinary  area.  Fig.  169  shows  a  small  clay  field  (75  ft.  wide  and 
300  ft.  deep),  with  a  barn  at  the  rear.  In  front  of  the  barn  is  a 
screen  of  willows.  The  observer  is  looking  from  the  dwelling 
house.  The  area  has  been  plowed  and  seeded  for  a  lawn.  The 
operator  has  then  marked  out  a  devious  line  upon  either  border 
with  a  hoe  handle,  and  all  the  space  between  these  borders  has 
been  gone  over  with  a  garden  roller  to  mark  the  area  of  the  desired 
greensward.  The  borders  are  now  planted  with  a  variety  of 
small  trees,  bushes  and  herbs.  Five  years  later  the  photograph 
shown  in  Fig.  170  was  taken. 

The  reader  may  now  begin  to  appreciate  the  value  of  foliage 
masses  in  the  landscape,  and  the  comparatively  trivial  and  weak 
effects  of  mere  flower-beds  in  any  rural  picture.  Let  me  illus¬ 
trate  again  the  uses  of  mass-effects  by  photographs  taken  in  one 
of  our  most  famous  metropolitan  parks.  Fig.  17 1  is  one  of  that 
common  type  of  water  pieces  in  our  city  parks,  in  which  the  arti¬ 
ficial  and  ugly  borders  are  wholly  bare.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive 
of  any  use  or  beauty  which  is  served  by  the  butter-ladle  promon¬ 
tory  at  the  right.  The  other  view,  Fig.  172,  shows  a  similar 


172.  A  water  piece  well  planted , 


464 


Bulletin  121. 


structural  design  with  the  borders  planted  with  elders  and  dog¬ 
woods  and  other  common  things.  The  one  picture  is  a  harsh  and 
ambitious  attempt  at  design  ;  the  other  is  as  sweet  and  restful  as 
a  glimpse  from  paradise. 

But  if  one  has  no  area  which  he  can  make  into  a  lawn  and 
upon  which  he  can  plant  such  verdurous  masses,  what  then  may 


173.  Kerria ,  canna  and  wild  sunflower ,  and  the  grass  not  too 
scrupulously  sheared ,  in  the  corner  by  the  steps. 

he  do  ?  Even  then  there  may  be  opportunity  for  a  little  neat  and 
artistic  planting.  Even  if  one  lives  in  a  rented  house,  he  may 
bring  in  a  bush  or  an  herb  from  the  woods  and  paint  a  picture 
with  it.  Plant  it  in  the  corner  by  the  steps,  in  front  of  the  porch, 
at  the  corner  of  the  house,  almost  anywhere  except  in  the  center 
of  the  lawn.  Make  the  ground  rich,  secure  a  strong  root  and 
plant  it  with  care  ;  then  wait.  The  little  clump  will  not  only 
have  a  beauty  and  interest  of  its  own,  but  it  will  add  immensely 


The  Planting  of  Shubbery. 


465 


to  the  furniture  of  the  yard.  About  its  base  one  may  plant  stray 
bulbs  of  elowine  tulips  or  daintv  snowdrops  and  lilies- of-the  val- 

1  e y  ;  and 
these  may 
be  followed 
with  pan¬ 
sies  and 
phlox  and 
other  sim¬ 
ple  folk. 
Very  soon 
one  finds 
himself 
deeply  in¬ 
terested  in 
these  r  a  n- 

174.  A  careless  corner.  The  growth  came  from  a  sod  dug  dom  and 
in  a  swale  in  early  spring.  Clematis  and  purple  eupa-  detached 
torium,  and  lesser  weeds ,  comprise  the  colony. 

p  i  ctu  res, 

and  almost  before  he  is  aware  he  finds  that  he  has  rounded  off 
the  corners  of  the  house,  made  snug  little  arbors  of  wild  grapes 
and  clematis,  covered  the 
rear  fence  and  the  out¬ 
house  with  actinidia  and 
bitter-sweet, and  has  thrown 
in  dashes  of  color  with 
hollyhocks,  cannas  and 
lilies,  and  has  tied  the 
foundations  of  the  build¬ 
ings  to  the  greensward  by 
low  strands  of  vines  or  deft 
bits  of  planting.  He  soon 
comes  to  feel  that  flowers 
are  most  expressive  of  the 
best  emotions  when  they 
are  daintily  dropped  in  here 
and  there  against  a  back¬ 
ground  of  foliage.  Pres- 


175.  A  corner  and  doorway  draped 
with  honeysuckle. 


466 


Bulletin  12  i. 


ently  he  rebels  at  the  bold,  harsh  and  impudent  designs 
of  some  of  the  gardeners,  and  grows  into  a  pure  and  sub¬ 
dued  love  of  plant  forms  and  verdure.  He  may  still  like  the 
weeping  and  cut-leaved  and  party-colored  trees  of  the  horticul¬ 
turist,  but  he  sees  that  their  best  effects  are  to  be  had  when  they 
are  planted  sparingly,  as  flowers  are,  as  borders  or  promontories 
of  the  structural  masses. 

It  all  amounts  to  this,  that  the  best  planting,  like  the  best  paint¬ 
ing  and  the  best  music,  is  possible  only  with  the  best  and  tender- 
est  feeling  and  the  closest  living  with  nature.  One’s  place  grows 
to  be  a  reflection  of  himself,  changing  as  he  changes,  and 
expressing  his  life  and  sympathies  to  the  last. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 


Bulletin  122.  December,  1896. 

Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ITHACA,  N.Y. 

HORTICULTURAL  DIVISION. 

SECOND  REPORT  UPON 


EXTENSION  WORK 

IN  HORTICULTURE. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 

President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 

Hon.  A.  D.  White,  -  Trustee  of  the  University. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -  President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Professor  I.  P.  Roberts,  -----  Agriculture. 
Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell,  -----  Chemistry. 
Professor  James  Raw,  -----  Veterinary  Science. 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock,  -----  Kntomology. 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  -  -  -  -  -  Horticulture. 

Professor  H.  H.  Wing,  -  -  -  -  Dairy  Husbandry. 

Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson,  -  -  -  -  Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 


I.  P.  Roberts, 

E.  L.  Williams, 

E.  A.  Butter, 

M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  - 
L.  A.  Ceinton, 

B.  M.  Duggar, 


Director. 
-  Treasurer. 
Clerk. 

ASSISTANTS. 

Entomology. 

Chemistry. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogam  ic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

hi.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 1 7.  Fruit  Brevities. 

1 18.  Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Increasers. 

1 19.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil. 

120.  The  Moisture  of  the  Soil  and  its  Conservation. 

12 1.  Suggestions  for  the  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 

122.  Second  Report  upon  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


EXTENSION  WORK  IN  HORTICULTURE. 


The  Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir; — About  a  year  ago  (in  Bulletin  no),  I  made  an  official 
report  of  the  progress  of  the  work  which  had  been  undertaken 
by  this  institution  in  furtherance  of  the  purpose  of  the  Experi¬ 
ment  Station  Extension,  or  Nixon  Bill.  That  report  was  made 
at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year’s  work  under  that  law.  A 
«  third  year  has  now  been  added  to  our  experience,  and  we  have 
also  made  some  departures  in  the  character  of  the  work  ;  and 
since  the  undertaking  has  now  grown  to  such  proportions  that  it 
can  no  longer  be  handled  by  any  of  the  regularly  organized  de¬ 
partments  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  University, 
it  has  seemed  to  us  to  be  worth  the  while  to  address  you  another 
report  of  progress. 

GENERAL  SCOPE  OF  WORK. 

In  the  former  report,  it  was  explained  that  the  work  of  extend¬ 
ing  the  influence  and  usefulness  of  the  Experiment  Station  has 
been  thrown  into  three  more  or  less  separate  lines, — research  or 
experiment,  direct  teachings,  and  the  publication  of  the  results 
of  investigation.  The  animus  of  the  entire  enterprise  has  been 
an  attempt  to  inquire  into  the  agricultural  status,  to  discover  the 
causes  of  the  rural  depression,  and  to  suggest  means  for  improv¬ 
ing  the  farmer’s  position.  This  attempt  has  been  specifically 
directed  to  a  single  great  branch  of  rural  industry,  horticulture, 
in  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  the  law  ;  but  what  is  true  of 
the  horticultural  communities  is  essentially  true  of  other  agricul¬ 
tural  regions,  and,  moreover,  these  two  types  of  agricultural  in¬ 
dustry  cannot  be  separated  by  any  arbitrary  lines.  The  work, 
therefore,  has  practically  resulted  in  a  broad  study  of  rural  econo¬ 
mics.  We  conceive  that  it  is  impossible  to  really  extend  the 
Experiment  Station  and  University  impulse  to  the  people  in  such 
manner  that  it  shall  come  to  them  as  a  living  and  quickening 


472 


Bulletin  122. 


force,  without  first  studying  the  fundamental  difficulties  of  the 
farmers’  social  and  political  environment. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  the  present  report  that  I  make  any  discus¬ 
sion  of  the  agricultural  status.  I  may  only  say  that,  as  the  re¬ 
sult  of  the  most  painstaking  study  which  I  have  been  able  to 
make,  I  am  convinced  that  there  is  no  agricultural  disease.  That 
is,  there  is  no  political  condition  which  is  peculiar  to  agriculture 
and  which  can  be  remedied  by  legislation.  By  reason  of  their  in¬ 
herent  conservatism,  the  agricultural  people  have  not  yet  adjusted 
themselves  to  the  recent  social  and  economic  movements,  and 
they  have  not  fully  assimilated  the  knowledge  and  impulses  of 
the  time  ;  and  I  am  also  convinced  that  grave  errors  have  been 
committed  in  forcing  the  development  of  western  lands.  If  these 
general  conclusions  are  sound,  then  it  follows  that  the  solution 
of  our  agrarian  difficulties  is  to  be  sought  in  better  education.  By 
education,  I  mean  literally  what  I  say, — by  means  of  a  general 
waking  up,  a  shaking  out  of  all  the  old  habits  of  thought,  an  in¬ 
jection  of  new  conceptions  of  life,  an  intellectual  stirring  up  of 
every  rural  community.  I  do  not  mean  the  simple  giving  of  in¬ 
formation,  the  cramming  in  of  carefully  assorted  facts.  We  need 
to  shake  out  the  snarls  and  kinks  of  prejudice  and  indifference  be¬ 
fore  giving  great  attention  to  the  dissemination  of  more  direct 
information.  There  is  already  enough  popular  knowledge  of  bet¬ 
ter  agricultural  methods  to  greatly  improve  our  rural  conditions, 
if  only  the  farmers  would  assimilate  it  and  apply  it.  This  knowl¬ 
edge  is  of  little  account  when  it  is  a  mere  extraneous  possession. 
It  must  be  worked  into  the  fibre  of  the  man  until  he  is  not  aware 
that  he  possesses  it. 

In  this  extension  work,  therefore,  we  have  sought  not  so 
much  for  new  facts  as  for  some  way  of  driving  home  the  old  facts. 
We  have  tried  to  set  forces  at  work  which  would  silently  extend 
themselves  when  we  had  left  them.  Fortunately,  we  have  been 
greatly  aided  by  the  hard  times  and  the  multitudes  of  bugs  and 
special  difficulties.  These  things  have  driven  people  to  thinking 
and  to  asking  for  information.  The  agricultural  communities  are 
thoroughly  aroused,  and  now  is  the  time  to  teach.  When  one  is 
thoroughly  prosperous  in  his  business,  there  is  little  chance — as,  in 
fact,  there  is  generally  little  need — of  teaching  him  other  methods. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


473 


I  must  hasten  to  say  that  the  agricultural  status  in  Western 
New  York  is  not  such  a  deplorable  one  as  my  reader  may  suppose, 
or  as  he  may  infer  from  my  preceding  remarks.  Those  farmers 
who  grow  various  and  difficult  crops  are  wide  awake,  intelligent, 
aggressive  and  for  the  most  part  contented.  The  man  who  grows 
only  few  and  staple  crops  is  very  apt  to  fall  into  stereotyped  ways 
of  thinking,  which  may  mean  that  he  drops  behind  the  times. 
Just  as  fast  as  more  varied  farming  is  forced  upon  the  agricultural 
communities  by  the  inexorable  struggle  for  existence,  will  the 
farmer’s  horizon  and  sympathies  enlarge  ;  and  with  the  progress 
of  this  broadening  and  educative  impulse — which,  now,  fortu¬ 
nately,  is  rapidly  rising — the  farmers  will  find  themselves  in  posi¬ 
tion  to  correct  whatever  minor  faults  of  legislation  that  may  have 
occurred,  and  to  direct  and  control  the  social  forces  with  which 
they  are  concerned. 

We  might  classify  our  efforts  to  reach  the  people,  in  the  progress 
of  our  work,  under  five  general  heads.  These  efforts  have  all 
been  experiments  in  methods  of  extension  teaching  as  applied  to 
horticulture.  We  have  tried  to  ascertain  the  value  of  : 

(i.)  The  itinerant  or  local  experiment  as  a  means,  of 
teaching. 

(2.)  The  readable  expository  bulletin. 

(3.)  The  itinerant  horticultural  school. 

(4.)  Elementary  instruction  in  the  rural  schools. 

(5.)  Instruction  by  means  of  correspondence  and  reading 
courses. 

Unless  all  signs  are  deceptive,  the  greatest  good  which  has  yet 
been  accomplished  has  come  through  the  bulletins.  We  have 
wished  that  we  might  be  able  to  make  bulletins  which  would 
interest  the  reader  aside  from  the  information  which  they  contain. 
We  should  have  liked  to  put  juice  into  them,  for  pemmican, 
whilst  exceedingly  nutritions,  is  difficult  of  digestion. 

Aside  from  the  reporting  of  definite  experiment  work,  these 
bulletins  have  taken  the  form  of  surveys  of  the  status  of  certain 
industries  ;  and  an  effort  has  also  been  made  to  give  a  new  flavor 
to  country  life  by  writing  upon  subjects  of  floriculture  and  orna¬ 
mental  gardening.  Whilst  it  seems  to  us  that  the  publications 
have  been  useful  in  furthering  the  work  which  we  have  had  in 


474 


Bulletin  122. 


mind,  we  are  nevertheless  convinced  that  an  unlimited  issue  or 
even  a  very  large  number  of  such  expository  bulletins  would  not 
be  proportionately  useful  at  the  present  time.  There  are  still  a 
number  of  horticultural  subjects  which  we  desire  to  treat  in  this 
spirit ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  real  fundamental  work  of  exten¬ 
sion  teaching  must  be  prosecuted  along  other  lines  in  connection 
with  publication  of  a  distinctly  didactic  kind.  It  may  be  said, 
before  leaving  this  subject,  that  the  entire  number  of  bulletins 
thus  far  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Nixon  bill,  including 
the  present  report,  is  forty.  The  experimental  and  investigational 
work  which  is  still  going  forward — of  which  there  is  consider¬ 
able — will  be  reported  in  forthcoming  bulletins.  For  the  present 
report,  it  is  only  necessary  to  explain  the  work  of  direct  teaching 
which  we  have  undertaken  during  the  present  year,  and  to  draw 
certain  conclusions  from  the  general  work  of  the  Nixon  bill. 

2.  Experiments  in  Extension  Teaching. 

During  the  past  season,  we  have  made  an  especial  effort  to 
determine  the  best  methods  of  reaching  the  rural  communities  by 
means  of  personal  teaching,  and  our  work  has  fallen  into  three 
general  lines.  In  the  first  place,  we  have  carried  forward 
one  month’s  work  of  consecutive  teaching  by  means  of  the  type 
of  horticultural  school  which  we  have  heretofore  held  and  which 
are  somewhat  fully  reported  in  Bulletin  no;  we  have  made 
another  experiment  of  a  month’s  duration  in  teaching  nature-study 
and  object  lessons  in  the  rural  schools  ,of  the  Fourth  Judicial 
Department ;  and  at  the  present  time,  we  are  endeavoring  to 
carry  forward  the  instruction  which  has  been  thus  begun  by  means 
of  correspondence  and  an  attempt  to  establish  reading  courses  in 
the  various  school  districts  and  rural  organizations. 

The  horticultural  schools  held  during  the  month  of  September 
were  as  follows,  the  names  of  the  teachers  being  in  italic  : 

1.  Aug.  28,  29,  F .,  .S’.  Jamestown,  Chautauqua  Co.,  Y.  M. 

C.  A.  Hall,  Bailey,  Sli?igerla?id  &  Lodeman ,  Roberts. 

Powell  &  Cavanaugh ,  Clinton. 

2.  Aug.  29,  A.  Ellington,  Chautauqua  Co.  Case  &  Frisbee’s 

Hall.  Lodeman ,  Slingerland ,  Powell. 

3.  Aug.  31,  Sept.  1  ,M.,  T.  East  Randolph,  Cattaraugus  Co. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  475 

Hall’s  Opera  House.  Clinton,  Cavanaugh ,  Powell.  Lode- 
man  &  Slingerland ,  Bailey. 

4.  Sept.  2,  3,  PH.  Th.  Cuba,  Allegany  Co.  Fireman’s  Hall. 

Bailey ,  Cavanaugh,  Powell.  Slingerland ,  Powell  a?id 

Clinton. 

5.  Sept.  2,  3,  4,  PH  7Vz.,  F.  Brocton,  Chautauqua  Co.  Even¬ 

ings  only.  Bailey.  Lodeman.  Powell. 

6.  Sept.  4,  5,  Tu,  Y.  Eyndonville,  Orleans  Co.  Methodist 

Church.  Lodeman ,  Cavanaugh ,  Bailey.  Clinton ,  Powell. 

7.  Sept.  7>  M.  Romulus,  Seneca  Co.  Romulus  Hall.  Lode¬ 

man ,  Clinton ,  Roberts. 

8.  Sept.  7,  8,  Af.  7".  North  Rose,  Wayne  Co.  I.  O.  G.  T. 

Hall.  Powell ,  Dug  gar ,  Cavanaugh.  Slingerland,  Bailey. 

9.  Sept.  8,  9,  7".  PH.  Williamson,  Wayne  Co.  Grange  Hall. 

Powell ,  Duggar.  Bailey ,  Slingerland ,  Cavanaugh,  Clinton. 

10.  Sept.  10,  7"!6.  Webster,  Monroe  Co.  Lodeman ,  Cavanaugh , 

Clinton. 

11.  Sept.  9,  10,  PH.,  Th.  Hilton  (N.  Parma),  Monroe  Co.  F. 

W.  Baptist  Church.  Lodeman ,  Cavaiiaugh,  Powell.  Slin¬ 
gerland  &  Duggar ,  Bailey. 

12.  Sept.  11,  12,  7u,  6*.  Dansville,  Eivingston  Co.  Grange 

Hall,  near  Stone’s  Falls,  Friday  ;  farm  of  H.  R.  Me  Nair, 
below  Woodsville,  Saturday.  Basket  picnics.  Bailey , 
Lodeman,  Roberts.  Cavanaugh  &  Duggar ,  Clinton. 

13.  Sept.  12,  kS.  Wyoming,  Wyoming  Co.  Powell  &  Slhiger- 

land,  Roberts,  Powell. 

14.  Sept.  14,  15,  Af.  7".  Ee  Roy,  Genesee  Co.  G.  A.  R.  Hall. 

Powell  &  Duggar,  Clinton,  Bailey.  Cavanaugh,  Mrs. 
Comstock. 

15.  Sept.  15,  T.  Dundee,  Yates  Co.  G.  A.  R.  Hall.  Lode¬ 

man,  Clinton,  Slingerland. 

16.  Sept.  16,  PH.  Hall’s  Corners,  Ontario  Co.  Lodeman  & 

Slingerland,  Clinto?i,  Lodeman. 

17.  Sept.  16,  17,  PH.  Th.  Skaneateles,  Onondaga  Co.  Library 

Hall.  Powell,  Cavanaugh,  Mrs.  Comstock,  Clinton,  Roberts. 

18.  Sept.  17,  Th.  Fayetteville,  Onondaga  Co.  Powell  &  Dug¬ 

gar,  Cavanaugh,  Bailey. 


476 


Bulletin  122. 


19.  Sept.  17,  18,  Th.,F.  Oswego,  Oswego  Co.  Court  House. 

Lodeman,  Slbigerla?id,  Powell.  Roberts ,  Cavanaugh. 

20.  Sept.  18,  19,  F.  S.  Mexico,  Oswego  Co.  Town  Hall. 

Lodeman ,  Sling erland ,  Clinton ,  Cavanaugh,  Powell. 

21.  Sept.  21,  22,  M.,  T.  Lowville,  Lewis  Co.  Court  House. 

Powell ,  Duggar  &  Sling  erland,  Bailey.  Clinton,  Cava¬ 
naugh. 

22.  Sept.  22,  23,  T.,  W Poland,  Herkimer  Co.  F.  B.  Church. 

Bailey,  Duggar  &  Slingerland,  Powell .  Clinton,  Cava¬ 

naugh. 

23.  Sept.  23,  24,  IF.  77*.  Trenton,  Oneida  Co.  Grange  Hall. 

Bailey,  Slingerla?id  &  Duggar ,  Powell.  Cavanaugh, 
Clbiton. 

24.  Sept.  24,  25,  Th .,  F.  Clinton,  Oneida  Co.  Scollard  Opera 

House.  Bailey  &  Slingerland,  Mrs.  Comstock  &  Mor¬ 
rill,  Bailey.  Cavanaugh  &  Duggar.  Powell. 

These  schools  were  designed  to  impart  specific  horticultural  in¬ 
struction,  and,  more  particularly,  to  awaken  closeness  of  observa¬ 
tion,  and  careful  reasoning  therefrom,  upon  the  part  of  the  attend¬ 
ants.  These  schools  were  arranged  for  in  the  various  places 
through  a  local  committee  which  was  appointed  by  the  person 
who  applied  for  the  school  in  that  community.  Posters  were  dis¬ 
tributed  sometime  in  advance  of  the  meetings,  the  subject  matter 
of  one  of  which  is  presented  herewith  : 

A  SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE 

WILL  BE  HELD  IN  THE 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  HALL,  JAMESTOWN,  CHAUTAUQUA 

COUNTY,  N.  Y., 

Friday  and  Saturday,  August  28  and  29,  1896,  beginning 

at  10  o’clock,  sharp. 

This  School  is  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Experiment  Station  Exten¬ 
sion,  or  Nixon,  Law,  which,  for  three  years,  has  given  funds  for  the  promul¬ 
gation  of  horticultural  knowledge  in  Western  New  York.  Its  territory  is  the 
Fourth  Judicial  Department,  comprising  22  counties,  of  which  the  eastern¬ 
most  are  Jefferson,  Lewis,  Herkimer,  Oneida,  Onondaga,  Cayuga,  Seneca, 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


477 


Yates  and  Steuben.  The  demands  of  this  law  are  met  by  conducting  experi¬ 
ments,  by  publishing  the  results  of  these  researches  in  bulletin  form,  in  send¬ 
ing  agents  or  experts  to  examine  orchards  and  plantations  when  advice  is 
needed,  and  in  the  holding  of  schools  in  which  the  various  matters  of  science 
and  practice  pertaining  to  fruit-growing,  gardens,  and  green-houses  are  dis¬ 
cussed.  The  force  of  instructors  who  take  part  in  these  schools  are  Mr. 
George  T.  Powell  and  teachers  in  Cornell  University  : 

Teachers  upon  General  Subjects :  Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
George  T.  Powell,  Professor  L,.  H.  Bailey. 

Representing  Spraying,  Vineyards  and  Small  Fruits  :  E.  G. 
Lodeman,  Instructor  in  Horticulture. 

Representing  Entomology :  M.  V.  Slingerland,  Assistant 
Entomologist  in  the  Experiment  Station. 

Representing  Tillage,  Conservation  of  Moisture,  Farm  Tools, 
and  the  like  :  L,.  A.  Clinton,  Assistant  Agriculturist  in  the  Ex¬ 

periment  Station. 

Representing  Chemistry,  Plant  Foods,  Fertilizers :  G.  W. 
Cavanaugh,  Assistant  Chemist  in  the  Experiment  Station. 

Representing  Plant  Diseases  and  Botanical  Matters  :  B.  M. 
Duggar,  Assistant  Botanist  in  the  Experiment  Station. 

Instruction  for  Children  :  Mrs.  J.  H.  Comstock. 

Some  or  all  of  these  persons  will  be  present  at  every  school. 

These  schools  are  free  to  everyone.  It  is  especially  desired  that  the  women  and 
young  men  should  attend  them.  Each  session  will  be  devoted  to  one  general 
subject,  and  all  questions  upon  that  subject  should  be  reserved  for  that  occa¬ 
sion.  It  is  the  purpose  of  these  schools  to  awaken  an  interest  in  rural  affairs 
and  to  inspire  correct  methods  of  observation  and  thinking,  quite  as  much 
as  to  give  explicit  direction  for  horticultural  work. 

It  will  conduce  to  the  interest  of  the  occasion  if  the  citizens  make  displays 
of  flowers,  fruits  and  vegetables.  Participants  are  requested  to  bring  in  all 
specimens  of  insects,  diseased  plants,  and  the  like,  concerning  which  they 
desire  information. 

Come  prepared  to  learn,  not  to  criticize.  Bring  note-book  and  pencil.  If 
forty  or  fifty  earnest  persons  are  in  attendance  at  all  the  sessions,  the  school 
will  be  a  success  ;  but  it  is  desired  to  reach  as  many  people  as  possible. 

A  course  of  reading  will  be  laid  out,  at  the  School,  for  all  who  desire  to 
take  it  up.  The  local  rural  societies  should  further  this  work.  The  value  of 
the  school  will  depend  greatly  upon  the  extent  to  which  it  stimulates  further 
reading  and  study. 

Whenever  practicable,  it  is  desired  that  one  session,  or  a  part  of  a  session, 
be  given  to  the  children  of  the  public  schools. 

Please  circulate  this  information  widely. 


478  Bulletin  122. 

For  further  information  consult  the  local  committee : 

Newell,  Cheney,  Poland  Center, 

A.  A.  VanVleck,  Jamestown, 

W.  C.  Gifford,  Jamestown, 

M.  WamplE,  Jamestown, 

Or  address,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Programs  will  be  ready  before  the  school  opens. 

One  of  the  most  useful  exercises  in  connection  with  these 
schools,  and  which  we  have  uniformly  employed  from  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  our  work,  consists  in  observation  lessons.  Some 
small  object,  like  leaves  or  roots,  flowers  or  seeds,  is  put  in  the 
hands  of  all  the  attendants,  and,  after  they  have  examined  it  for 
a  few  minutes,  the  instructor  begins  to  ask  questions  concerning 
it.  This  exercise  drills  every  participant  in  observation,  in  the 
drawing  of  proper  inferences  from  what  he  sees,  and  the  exercise 
has  always  been  productive  of  tbe  greatest  interest  and  good.  A 
sample  program  of  one  of  these  horticultural  schools  is  herewith 
submitted  : 

Everyone  interested  in  Rural  Affairs  is  invited  to  attend  a 
SCHOOL  OF  HORTICULTURE 

TO  BE  HELD  IN 

SCOLLARD  OPERA  HOUSE,  CLINTON,  ONEIDA  CO., 
Thursday  and  Friday,  September  24  and  25,  1896. 

The  school  is  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Nixon,  or  Exper¬ 
iment  Station  Extension  Bill,  which  appropriates  funds  for  the 
dissemination  of  horticultural  knowledge  in  the  Fourth  Judicial 
Department  of  the  State.  The  work  is  in  charge  of  Cornell  Uni¬ 
versity  (Ithaca),  and  the  instruction  is  given  chiefly  by  teachers 
in  that  institution,  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  L.  H. 
Bailey. 

Local  Committee:  E.  P.  Powell,  Clinton;  T.  T.  Thompson, 
Clinton  ;  H.  B.  Sykes,  Clinton  ;  Ira  F.  Ellenwood,  Clinton  ;  J. 
H.  Marvin,  New  Hartford. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  479 

Thursday,  10  a.  m.  (Sept.  24). 

Lesson  upon  Flowers — (Conducted  by  L.  H.  Bailey). 

M.  V.  Slingerland — Insects  :  What  they  are  and  How  they 
Live.  Illustrated  by  specimens  and  models. 

After  this  exercise  questions  may  be  asked  about  spray¬ 
ing. 

Thursday,  2  p.  m. 

Lesson  upon  Leaves — (Conducted  by  L.  H.  Bailey). 

E-  P.  Powell— Orchard  Culture  :  How  to  secure  healthy 
trees  and  healthy  crops. 

Mrs.  J.  H.  Comstock — What  bright-eyed  children  may  see 
in  their  walks.  Illustrated  by  original  colored 
drawings. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  school  children  may  be  present  at 
this  latter  exercise. 

Thursday,  7:30  p.  m. 

Lesson  upon  Branches — (Conducted  by  L-  H.  Bailey). 

L.  H.  Bailey — The  Philosophy  and  Practice  of  Pruning. 
Illustrated  by  specimens. 

This  exercise  will  consider  certain  phases  of  evolution, 
as  well  as  of  the  pruning  of  trees. 

Friday,  10  a.  m.  (Sept.  25). 

Lesson  upon  Buds — (Conducted  by  Professor  Morrill). 

A.  D.  Morrill — The  Leaf-bud  and  Budding  and  Grafting. 

B.  M.  Duggar — Fungi :  What  they  are  and  How  they  Live. 

At  this  point  persons  may  ask  questions  about  dis¬ 
eases  of  plants. 

Friday,  2  p.  m. 

Lesson  upon  Matches — (Conducted  by  George  W.  Cavanaugh). 

George  W.  Cavanaugh — The  Chemistry  of  Some  Plant 
Foods.  Illustrated  by  Chemical  Tests. 

George  T.  Powell — How  to  Pick,  Pack  and  Export  Apples. 

Will  some  one  bring  in  a  barrel  of  apples  properly 
packed.  ? 


480 


Bulletin  122. 


Be  on  hand  promptly  at  the  opening  hour.  Time  is  precious. 

Bring  note-book  and  pencil. 

Bring  all  the  family.  The  introductory  lessons  will  be  especially  interest¬ 
ing  to  children,  and  there  should  be  a  good  turnout. 

Come  prepared  to  ask  and  to  learn,  but  do  not  come  to  criticise.  The 
school  is  intended  for  those  of  an  inquiring  mind,  not  for  those  who  wish 
simply  to  be  entertained. 

Each  regular  attendant  will  be  enrolled  as  a  scholar. 

Printed  synopses  of  each  regular  talk  or  lecture  will  be  distributed. 

Bring  in  specimens  of  fruits,  insects,  plants,  and  whatever  else  interests 
you. 

It  is  more  needful  to  learn  first  to  think  correctly  than  to  perform  cor¬ 
rectly ;  for  all  accurate  labor  is  the  child  of  accurate  thought. 

Bring  this  program  with  you. 

We  have  taken  up  this  experiment  in  teaching  with  the  same 
spirit  in  which  we  would  take  up  an  investigation  in  natural 
science  ;  that  is,  we  have  not  attempted  to  prove  any  preconceived 
notions  but  have  wished  to  seek  for  the  truth.  We  have  desired 
chiefly  to  know  what  is  the  best  means  of  reaching  the  farming 
communities  with  the  new  educational  impulses.  In  respect  to 
these  September  schools,  I  may  say  that  they  were  uniformly 
well  received  by  the  communities  in  which  they  were  held.  As 
an  experiment,  all  of  them  are  considered  to  have  been  successful, 
although  it  should  be  said  that  one  of  them  was  not  held  because 
of  a  conflict  with  a  county  fair.  These  schools  have  drawn  a 
limited  number  of  participants,  ranging  all  the  way  from  twenty 
to  two  hundred.  I  presume  that  an  average  attendance  would 
run  from  forty  to  sixty.  The  participants  have  almost  uniformly 
been  the  most  influential  horticulturists  and  farmers  of  the  neigh¬ 
borhood — persons  who  extend  a  wide  influence  and  who  will  give 
great  popularity  to  any  work  in  which  they  are  interested.  In 
distinctively  fruit-growing  regions,  and  especially  in  those  locali¬ 
ties  where  farmers’  institutes,  grange  meetings  and  other  like  as¬ 
semblages  have  been  held,  these  schools  have  been  immediately 
worth  many  times  more  than  they  have  cost.  In  certain  other 
communities,  however,  especially  those  in  which  farmers’  meet¬ 
ing  have  not  been  held  energetically,  and  in  grazing  regions, 
these  schools  have,  in  my  opinion,  been  of  too  technical  or  special 
character  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  good.  As  a  result 
of  the  holding  of  many  of  these  schools,  I  am  now  of  the  opinion 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


481 


that  they  cannot  be  used  as  primary  factors  in  university  exten¬ 
sion  ;  they  are  capable  of  accomplishing  a  great  amount  of  good 
when  the  community  has  been  awakened  iby  simpler  and  more 
elementary  means.  I  should  therefore  consider  that  they  could 
serve  their  best  uses  when  they  are  given  as  a  reward  to  those 
communities  in  which  the  greatest  amount  of  interest  in  reading 
courses,  in  horticultural  clubs,  institutes  and  such  other  public 
factors  has  been  developed.  There  are  centers  enough  in  New 
York  State  where  such  schools  can  be  held  with  distinct  advan¬ 
tage  at  the  present  moment ;  but  they  should  be  rather  the  cul¬ 
mination  of  a  series  of  extension  teaching  efforts  rather  than  a 
primary  or  preliminary  means  of  awakening  the  rural  com¬ 
munities. 

During  October  a  series  of  meetings  was  held  in  the  school- 
houses  of  various  parts  of  the  Fourth  Judicial  Department. 
These  were  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  Mr.  George  T. 
Powell,  who  was  assisted  throughout  the  month  by  Mr.  John  W. 
Spencer,  of  Westfield.  These  meetings  were  of  the  type  which 
had  been  so  successfully  inaugurated  in  Westchester  County  a 
year  ago  under  the  auspices  of  the  Committee  for  the  Promotion 
of  Agriculture,  a  work  which  had  been  carried  to  its  practical 
demonstration  by  Mr.  Powell.  The  itinerary  o  the  October 
meetings,  together  with  some  statistics  thereof,  are  herewith  sub¬ 
mitted  : 

Charlotte  Centre,  Chautauqua  Co.,  Geo.  R. 

Mathewson,  teacher;  36  pupils. 

Sinclairville  High  School,  Chautauqua  Co., Pro¬ 
fessor  F.  L-  Hannum,  principal  ;  165  pupils. 
Thornton,  Chautauqua  Co.,  Bates  District, 
Blanche  Stone,  teacher  ;  37  pupils. 

Ellington,  Chautauqua  Co.,  High  School,  Pro¬ 
fessor  E.  W.  Storms,  principal;  130  pupils. 
Kennedy,  Chautauqua  Co.,  Mrs.  Millie  Lathrop 
Williams,  teacher. 

Ashville,  Chautauqua  Co.,  D.  H.  Findley,  prin¬ 
cipal  ;  three  departments  ;  60  pupils. 
Blockville,  Chautauqua  Co.,  J.  C.  Smith, 
teacher  ;  34  pupils. 


Oct. 

1. 

A. 

M. 

P. 

M. 

<  < 

2. 

A. 

M. 

P. 

M. 

4  < 

3- 

P. 

M. 

4  4 

5- 

A. 

M. 

P. 

M. 

482 

Oct.  6. 


A.  M. 


Bulletin  122. 


p.  m. 

“  7.  - 

A-  M. 

P.  M. 

“  8.  A.  M. 

P.  M. 

“  9.  A.  M- 

P.  M. 

“  12.  A.  M. 

P.  M. 

“  13.  A.  M. 

P.  M. 


14.  A.  M. 
P.  M. 


North  Collins,  Erie  Co.,  High  School,  E.  E- 
Shore,  principal  ;  130  pupils. 

North  Collins,  Eugene  Willitt’s  District,  Eliza¬ 
beth  E.  Kingsland,  teacher  ;  23  pupils. 

East  Aurora,  Erie  Co.,  Jewett  District,  Miss 
EuellaMalon,  teacher;  18  pupils. 
Youngstown,  Niagara  Co.,  Henry  Eutts’  Dis¬ 
trict,  Cora  A.  Bradley,  teacher;  27  pupils. 
Youngstown,  district  near  Model  City,  Elizabeth 
M.  Berkley,  teacher ;  29  pupils. 

Knowlesville,  Orleans  Co.,  Graded  School,  J. 

F.  McNall,  principal  ;  85  pupils. 

Millville  District,  Orleans  Co.,  Ernest  A.  Roll, 
teacher;  34 pupils. 

Spencerport,  Monroe  Co.,  Graded  School,  F. 

W.  Hill,  principal;  170 pupils. 

Medina,  Orleans  Co.,  High  School.  (Evening). 
Adams  Basin,  Monroe  Co.,  W.  H.  Clark,  prin¬ 
cipal  ;  50  pupils. 

South  Eivonia  District,  Eivingston  Co.,  W. 

Arthur  Turner,  teacher  ;  47  pupils. 

Eivonia,  Eivingston  Co.,  High  School,  W.  H. 
Cone,  principal ;  200  pupils. 

East  Palmyra  School,  Wayne  Co.;  14  pupils. 
Palmyra,  Wayne  Co.,  High  School,  Professor 

S.  D.  Arms,  principal ;  600  pupils. 

Evening  lecture. 

Conesus  District,  Eivingston  Co.,  S.  E.  Mc- 
Ninch,  principal ;  90  pupils. 

Foot’s  Corners  School,  Eivingston  Co.,  Jose¬ 
phine  Stalee,  teacher  ;  21  pupils. 

Boughton  Hill  District,  Ontario  Co.,  Miss  Mary 

T.  O’Neil,  teacher;  30 pupils. 

East  Victor  School,  O.  Smith,  teacher  ;  23 
pupils. 

Victor,  Ontario  Co.,  High  School;  300  pupils. 
(Evening.) 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture- 


483 


A.  m.  and  p.  m. 
Oct.  15.  A.  M- 


P.  M. 


15.  A-  M. 


15.  A.  M. 


P.  M. 


“  l6.  P.  M. 


<  i 


IQ. 


P.  M. 


“  20-  A.  M. 


P.  M. 


“  21.  A.  M. 


<  < 


22. 


<  < 


Naples,  Ontario  Co.,  Naples  High  School,  Pro¬ 
fessor  W.  C.  Noll,  principal;  225  pupils. 

Phelps  District  No.  2,  Ontario  Co.,  Miss  Emma 
Saulsbury,  teacher  ;  27  pupils. 

Phelps  Union  School,  Ontario  Co.,  Professor  D. 
D.  Edgerton,  principal  ;  330  pupils. 

Canandaigua,  Ontario  Co. ,  District  No.  17,  Lu- 
cretia  Adams,  teacher  ;  22  pupils. 

Canandaigua,  District  No.  15,  Mabel  Merse- 
reau,  teacher  ;  11  pupils. 

Canandaigua,  District  No.  14,  Cora  Parker, 
teacher  ;  20  pupils. 

Reed’s  Corners  School,  Ontario  Co.,  Julia  C. 
Caplise,  teacher;  31  pupils. 

Geneva  School,  Ontario  Co.,  Miss  Ellen  Beach 
in  charge  ;  40  to  50  in  room. 

Fayetteville,  Onondaga  Co.,  Union  School, 
Professor  T.  J.  House,  principal  ;  338  pupils. 

Manlius  Union  School  came  to  Fayetteville, 
Professor  E.  Neeley,  Manlius,  principal. 

Dwight  Stone’s  district,  Oswego  Co.,  Mrs. 
Francis  Gilbert,  teacher  ;  25  pupils. 

Eansing,  Oswego  Co.,  F.  D.  Bradley,  teacher  ; 
60  pupils. 

Oswego  Falls,  Oswego  Co.,  Maud  Marden, 
teacher ;  87  pupils. 

Fulton,  Oswego  Co.,  High  School,  Professor  P. 
G.  Clapp,  principal  ;  1,000  to  1,100  pupils. 

Volney  District  No.  7,  Oswego  Co.,  Mrs.  Flora 
S-  Davis,  teacher  ;  27  pupils. 

Volney  District  No.  4,  Lilian  Hollunbeck, 
teacher  ;  19  pupils. 

Volney  District  No.  3,  Mrs.  Anna  Fradenburg, 
teacher ;  30  pupils. 

Mexico,  Oswego  Co.,  High  School,  Professor  A. 
W.  Skinner,  principal  ;  300  pupils. 

Allendale  District,  Adams  P.  0-,  Jefferson  Co., 
Clarence  Pitts,  teacher  ;  35  pupils. 


23.  A.  M. 


Bulletin  122. 

Adams,  Jefferson  Co.,  Miss  M.  J.  Saulsbury, 
principal  ;  250  pupils. 

Watertown,  Jefferson  Co.  Horticultural  school. 
New  Hartford,  Oneida  Co.,  District  No.  10, 
Leon  E.  Jinks,  teacher  ;  33  pupils. 

New  Hartford,  District  No.  7,  Miss  Augusta 
Light,  teacher  ;  14  pupils. 

New  Hartford  Union  School,  Professor  G* 
Spaulding,  principal  ;  300  pupils. 

New  Hartford  Union  School. 

Hornellsville,  Steuben  Co.,  District  No.  12, 
Miss  Cassie  Cunningham,  teacher ;  20  pupils. 
Arkport,  Steuben  Co.,  High  School,  H.  W. 

Harris,  principal  ;  150  pupils. 

Canisteo,  Steuben  Co.,  High  School,  Professor 
W.  D.  Hood,  principal  ;  500  pupils. 
Hornellsville  High  School,  Professor  W.  R. 

Prentice,  superintendent. 

Rheims,  Steuben  Co.,  Pleasant  Valley  District, 
Miss  Minnie  E«  Pierce,  principal  ;  60  pupils. 
Hammondsport,  Steuben  Co.,  High  School, 
Professor  E.  L.  Monroe,  principal ;  300  pupils. 

The  plan  of  effort  in  this  teaching  was  to  visit  two  schools  dur¬ 
ing  the  day,  one  in  the  forenoon  and  one  in  the  afternoon.  The 
arrangements  were  made  in  advance  with  the  school  commissioner 
or  the  trustees,  and  the  fact  that  the  speakers  were  to  be  at  the 
school-house  was  ordinarily  announced  some  days  in  advance  so 
that  parents  and  friends  could  visit  the  school  at  that  time,  if  they 
chose.  The  teacher  was  in  every  case  willing  to  omit  the  regular 
exercises  for  an  hour  or  two  in  order  that  our  instructors  might 
take  up  the  work  of  object  teaching  with  the  children.  The 
motive  in  this  work  was  to  find  out  j  ust  how  the  pupils  could  be 
reached  by  means  of  object  lesson  teaching,  and  just  how  much 
interest  they  would  be  likely  to  manifest  in  agricultural  matters  in 
case  it  were  ever  found  to  be  desirable  to  introduce  such  teaching 
as  a  part  of  the  district  school  work.  The  instructor  would  first 
explain  the  reason  for  his  coming  and  give  the  school  to  under¬ 
stand  that  no  new  text-books  were  for  sale  and  hat  no  new  classes 


484 

Oct. 

23- 

p. 

M. 

i  i 

24. 

1  i 

26. 

A. 

M. 

P. 

M. 

i  i 

27. 

A. 

M. 

(  < 

27. 

P. 

M. 

<  < 

28. 

A. 

M. 

P. 

M. 

Evening. 

<  ( 

29. 

A. 

M. 

P. 

M. 

Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  485 

were  to  be  required  at  the  hands  of  the  teacher.  He  then  ordin¬ 
arily  took  up  some  simple  object  lesson.  It  might  be  in  one 
place  a  stalk  of  corn  which  he  had  in  his  hand  and  the  process  of 
growth  of  which  he  would  explain  from  seed  to  harvest  ;  it  might 
be  in  another  case  the  germination  of  a  bean  or  a  pumpkin  seed  ; 
it  might  be  in  another  case  the  habits  or  structure  of  a  potato  bug 
or  some  other  insect ;  it  might  be,  again,  the  reasons  why  there 
were  knots  and  knot  holes  in  the  wood  work  in  the  school-house; 
it  might  be  a  very  elementary  talk  upon  the  different  plant  foods 
which  are  in  the  soil  ;  it  might  be  in  other  cases  a  very  brief 
sketch,  with  charts,  of  some  fungus  ;  and  so  on.  These  exercises 
were  uniformly  well  received  by  both  the  pupils  and  the  teachers 
and  this  work  has,  I  think,  awakened  more  inspiration  in  the 
minds  of  our  instructors  than  any  other  attempt  which  we  have 
yet  made  to  reach  the  people.  The  teachers  in  the  schools  have 
without  exception  expressed  themselves  as  willing  and  desirous  of 
taking  up  some  such  simple  exercises  as  a  rest  for  the  pupils  two 
or  three  times  a  week,  if  only  they  themselves  could  be  instructed 
in  the  proper  methods  of  carrying  on  the  work.  In  order  to  afford 
this  instruction  to  the  teachers,  we  are  now  proposing  to  issue  a 
series  of  experimental  leaflets  on  object  lessons  and  place  these  in 
the  hands  of  the  teachers. 

There  is  no  doubt  of  the  necessity  for  work  of  this  kind  with  the 
children.  The  love  or  antipathy  of  the  farm  is  engendered  at  a 
very  early  age  in  the  minds  of  the  young.  This  has  been  demon¬ 
strated  in  these  October  meetings  when  we  have  asked  those  chil¬ 
dren  who  live  on  farms  and  who  still  desire  to  do  so  to  raise  their 
hands,  and  we  almost  uniformly  find  that  the  number  who  desire 
to  live  on  farms  is  far  less  than  those  who  actually  do  live  on  them. 
With  these  children,  ranging  from  six  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  the 
question  of  pecuniary  profits  upon  the  farm  has  appealed  very 
little,  but  they  are  influenced  directly  by  the  environments  under 
which  they  are  living.  These  environments  must  be  improved ; 
and  if  they  are,  there  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  children  will 
love  the  country  better  than  the  city.  We  have  thought,  there¬ 
fore,  that  it  is  eminently  worth  the  while  to  instill  the  love  of 
nature  and  the  knowledge  of  a  multitude  of  living  things  in  the 
minds  of  the  children  ;  and  by  so  doing  we  are  fully  convinced 


486 


Bulletin  122. 


that  we  shall  also  be  spreading  the  very  same  knowledge  and  im¬ 
pulse  to  the  parents  of  these  children.  In  fact,  all  the  instructors 
whom  we  have  had  in  the  field  during  the  present  year  are  fully 
convinced,  I  think,  that  the  fundamental  method  in  improving  the 
agricultural  status  is  to  begin  with  genuine  and  attractive  nature- 
education  in  rural  schools.  As  soon  as  a  genuine  interest  in  these 
matters  is  awakened  in  the  children  and  teachers,  school  gardens, 
cabinets  of  plants,  insects  and  minerals,  and  other  enterprises  will 
cluster  about  the  school-center,  and  the  influence  thereof  will 
spread  throughout  the  country  side. 

A  report  of  this  October  work  by  Mr.  Powell  is  herewith  sub¬ 
mitted  : 

“That  the  agriculture  of  New  York  State  has  been  seriously 
depressed  for  several  years,  there  is  no  question  ;  that  this  has 
affected  the  condition  of  the  rural  population  unfavorably  is  also 
recognized.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  see  wherein  legislation 
can  be  obtained  that  will  materially  change  the  present  conditions, 
except  upon  some  educational  lines  that  would  enable  those  en¬ 
gaged  in  agriculture,  through  greater  knowledge,  to  more  suc¬ 
cessfully  meet  some  of  the  difficulties  attending  production,  the 
interests  of  consumers  being  here  closely  connected  with  that  of 
producers  of  food  supplies. 

“  There  has  been  a  belief  that  our  educational  system,  excel¬ 
lent  as  it  is,  could  be  made  of  greater  value  to  the  individual  by 
helping  him  to  obtain  a  closer  knowledge  of  some  of  the  forces  of 
nature  which  contribute  so  largely  to  the  necessities  and  comforts 
of  life.  While  our  country  schools  have  instructed  children  in 
the  common  and  higher  English  branches,  and,  in  instances,  have 
taught  some  of  the  principles  of  natural  science,  but  little  attempt 
has  been  made  to  give  science  instruction  with  its  application  made 
to  living  things  or  to  those  pertaining  to  the  active  affairs  of  life. 

“  Under  the  auspices  of  the  committee,  known  as  the  Commit¬ 
tee  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  organized  in  New  York  in 
1895,  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  and  of  agricultural  educa¬ 
tion,  the  experiment  was  tried  of  giving  a  course  of  lectures  on 
natural  sciences  applied  to  agriculture  in  the  district  and  high 
schools  of  Westchester  County.  The  work  proved  of  prac¬ 
tical  value,  and  a  demand  came  upon  this  committee  to  ex- 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture* 


487 


tend  it  to  many  other  sections  in  the  state.  It  was  thought  by 
the  New  York  committee  that  Cornell  University,  having  such  a 
complete  equipment  for  scientific  instruction  and  able  teachers  in 
agriculture,  could  render  valuable  service  to  the  entire  state  by 
extending  this  line  of  instruction,  and  combining  with  its  experi¬ 
ment  and  investigation  work  that  of  instruction  in  some  of  the 
principles  of  agriculture  on  the  University  Extension  plan. 

“  During  the  month  of  October,  1896,  this  work  was  given  to  a 
number  of  schools  in  the  different  counties  comprising  the  Fourth 
Judicial  Department,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Nixon  bill,  for 
the  extension  of  horticultural  knowledge  and  instruction.  Two 
classes  of  schools  were  reached  :  those  in  the  rural  districts  and 
the  union  free  schools.  A  district  school  would  be  visited  in  the 
morning,  and  in  the  afternoon  a  union  or  high  school.  Two 
lectures  were  given  in  each,  namely  on  plant  and  insect  life.  Ob¬ 
servation  lessons  were  given  pupils,  while  methods  of  teaching 
these  subjects  were  given  the  teachers.  The  most  familiar  objects 
were  chosen  from  the  plant  life  of  the  school  district.  Seeds  rep¬ 
resenting  familiar  plants  were  germinated  and  placed  in  the  hands 
of  pupils  for  observation  and  study.  The  full  corn  in  the  ear  was 
shown  to  illustrate  what  had  taken  place  since  the  germination  of 
the  seed.  Eectures  on  insects  were  given,  choosing  the  familiar 
and  injurious  kinds  of  the  district  (those  that  do  direct  and  seri¬ 
ous  damage  to  crops  and  to  vegetation),  giving  their  history,  the 
different  transformations  through  which  they  pass,  and  instruc¬ 
tion  on  how  to  save  the  losses  they  cause.  To  the  higher  pupils, 
lectures  were  given  on  the  beneficial  insects,  their  relation  to  the 
flowers,  and  how  they  are  an  important  factor  in  the  fruitfulness 
of  orchards  and  vineyards,  in  the  distribution  of  pollen  of  different 
flowers,  in  cross-fertilization  and  formation  of  the  seeds  of  plants  ; 
also  on  the  relation  of  the  soil  to  all  forms  of  life,  vegetable  and 
animal,  its  important  elements  in  plant  food  and  how  it  can  be 
studied  in  an  elementary  manner.  Teachers  were  given  instruc¬ 
tion  by  objects  and  illustrations  on  how  these  subjects  could  be 
taught,  without  multiplying  studies  or  exercises  or  without  text¬ 
books,  by  dropping  some  regular  exercise  once  or  twice  a  week 
and  putting  in  a  twenty-minute  natural  science  period  as  inciden¬ 
tal  work.  Thus,  during  a  term,  much  valuable  instruction  can 


488 


Bulletin  122. 


be  given  on  inportant  topics  without  adding  to  the  crowded  de¬ 
mands  upon  teachers  and  pupils,  and  in  so  doing  the  entire  work 
of  the  school  will  be  advanced  in  interest  and  in  efficiency. 

“This  work  has  been,  without  exception,  received  favorably 
and  with  interest  by  teachers,  pupils,  officers  and  patrons  of  the 
schools  who  have  come  to  listen  to  this  course  of  lectures.  In 
some  instances,  in  the  rural  districts,  farmers  have  been  present 
who  were  school  trustees,  and  at  the  close  of  the  exercises  one 
said  publicly  in  speaking  of  the  work  done  that  “if  he  and  his 
neighbors  could  have  had  that  kind  of  instruction  when  they  were 
boys,  they  would  have  been  in  a  far  more  prosperous  condition  as 
farmers  to-day.”  In  some  places,  notably  in  districts  near  where 
a  horticultural  school  had  been  held  the  previous  month,  the 
school-house  was  beautifully  decorated  with  autumn  leaves,  with 
boughs  of  apples  hanging  on  the  walls  of  the  school  room,  flowers 
and  plants  brought  in  for  the  occasion,  while  the  fruits  of  the 
orchard  and  of  the  garden  were  piled  upon  the  teacher’s  desk  and 
on  the  floor  to  be  correctly  named  and  to  ascertain  the  causes  of 
some  diseases  and  blights  that  were  afflicting  them  ;  and  in  such 
cases  there  was  a  marked  attendance  of  the  patrons  of  the  school. 
In  several  schools  a  vote  was  taken  to  ascertain  the  number  of 
pupils  who  lived  upon  farms,  both  in  district  and  high  schools, 
and  a  further  test  vote  taken  to  ascertain  how  many  were  satisfied 
to  live  on  the  farm  and  desired  to  do  so  when  they  had  finished 
their  school  work.  In  some  places  the  astonishing  fact  was  met 
that  not  one  hand  went  up  or  one  vote  was  given  in  favor  of 
living  on  the  farm.  This  is  a  significant  and  vitally  important 
fact  brought  out  in  this  experimental  educational  work.  These 
school  children  from  the  farm  expressed  the  simple,  honest  con¬ 
victions  of  their  hearts  that  they  were  not  satisfied  with  farm 
living  and  intended  to  get  away  from  it  in  the  future  when  oppor¬ 
tunity  might  offer.  Yet  these  children  from  the  farms  showed  no 
lack  of  interest  in  the  subjects  as  they  were  presented  to  them  and 
showed  an  active  interest  in  answering  questions  that  pertain  to 
some  of  the  interesting  things  about  the  farm. 

“  This  is  but  a  corroboration  of  the  facts  obtained  in  the  recent 
investigation  touching  the  condition  of  the  rural  population  made 
by  the  New  York  Committee  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture, — 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  ’  489 

that  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  replies  received  in  this  inquiry  indi¬ 
cated  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  rural  population  to  go  to  the 
city.  An  important  question  here  arises  ;  what  is  to  be  the  future 
of  our  rural  schools*  and  of  the  agriculture  of  the  state  if  the  pre¬ 
sent  generation,  as  seems  so  clearly  indicated,  is  not  satisfied  with 
rural  life  and  feels  no  interest  in  maintaining  or  contributing  to 
the  agricultural  and  educational  interests  of  the  state  ?  While 
many  more  rural  school-houses  must  become  deserted,  there  are 
thousands  of  children  already  in  our  cities  who  are  deprived  of 
school  advantages  because  adequate  room  does  not  exist  for  them 
to  get  into  the  schools  of  the  city.  The  further  problem  also 
arises  of  the  difficult  economic  questions  to  be  met  in  our  cities  as 
the  result  of  congestion  of  population.  The  standard  of  teaching 
had  been  much  improved  in  New  York  State.  It  had  been  grat¬ 
ifying  to  meet  so  universally  teachers  who  are  not  only  well  quali¬ 
fied,  but  who  are  doing  excellent  work  in  their  schools  and  who 
have  the  true  teaching  spirit.  Our  educational  forces  are  thor¬ 
oughly  efficient  and  well  equipped,  but  there  is  a  need  of  different 
application  of  our  school  work  in  rural  districts.  The  life  of  the 
district  needs  to  be  changed  and  it  can  in  no  way  be  so  effectively 
done  as  through  our  schools.  The  best  work  cannot  be  done  in 
schools  with  an  attendance  of  only  half  a  dozen  children.  School 
districts  will  be  forced  to  even  greater  consolidation  in  the  future, 
and  it  would  be  desirable  if  families  could  also  be  consolidated,  for 
it  is  the  lack  of  social  opportunity  that  is  felt.  It  is  the  isolation 
of  the  farm  home  that  the  boy  and  girl  dislikes  in  these  days 
of  close  communication  and  contact  with  the  world  which  is 
brought  about  by  steam  and  electricity.  School  grounds  could 
be  enlarged.  They  should  furnish  the  opportunity  for  planting 
trees  and  shrubs  ;  for  the  planting  of  seeds  and  growing  of  flow¬ 
ers  ;  for  having  a  nicely  kept  lawn,  and  in  time,  these  things,  with 
their  influences,  would  extend  to  the  homes  of  children  who  do 
not  have  them  and  bring  with  them  those  attractions  and  interest 
that  make  a  home  what  it  ought  to  be — pleasant  and  inviting  in 
its  surroundings.  With  some  principles  taught  that  apply  to  the 
life  of  the  farm  in  its  various  forms,  much  that  is  to-day  discourag¬ 
ing,  unprosperous  and  almost  hopeless  will  be  gradually  changed 


490 


Bulletin  122. 


to  better  conditions,  and  general  and  permanent  prosperity  will 
follow. 

“  The  great  need  in  this  work  is  teachers  fitted  for  it.  Many 
excellent  teachers  have  felt  their  want  of  preparation  for  this  kind 
of  teaching,  but  our  normal  schools  are  already  giving  some 
instruction  in  nature-teaching,  and  by  carrying  the  system  some¬ 
what  further  can  render  the  state  an  invaluable  aid  in  this  direc¬ 
tion. 

“The instructors  furnished  by  Cornell  University  in  this  work 
have  shown  excellent  adaptability  in  it,  and  while  scientific 
instruction  has  been  given,  it  has  been  made  to  meet  the  under¬ 
standing  and  interest  of  all,  even  the  youngest  in  the  primary 
grades.  This  work  in  the  schools  in  the  counties  lying  within 
the  Fourth  Judicial  district  has  met  with  even  a  larger  measure 
of  interest  than  in  Westchester  County.  In  that  county  most  far¬ 
mers  look  upon  their  farms  as  holding  a  special  value  outside  of 
farming  purposes,  hence  most  farms  are  for  sale  at  any  time  ; 
while  out  in  the  state  the  interest  in  land  is  more  permanent  and 
this  has  awakened  a  general  and  active  interest  in  this  line  of 
instruction  in  every  school  and  school  district  where  it  has  been 
given.  The  plan  has  been  accepted,  not  only  as  practical  by 
those  who  have  witnessed  its  workings,  but  as  helpful  to  all  what¬ 
ever  may  be  the  work  they  will  take  up  in  life.  As  a  system  of 
instruction,  it  will  bring  experiences  of  delight  to  children  in  their 
school  days  such  as  they  have  not  before  known  in  the  many 
interesting  subjects  in  nature  that  will  be  brought  out  to  them  to 
know  and  to  study  about. 

‘  ‘  The  future  value  to  the  state  of  this  kind  of  instruction  can 
hardly  be  measured.  With  some  exceptions,  the  farms  of  New 
York  are  in  a  condition  of  sadly  depleted  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Nearly  everywhere  is  to  be  observed  the  absence  of  that  most  val¬ 
uable  renovator  of  the  soil — the  clover  plant — and  in  its  place  a 
low  type  of  herbage  of  little  value.  The  cost  o  production  is 
thereby  much  increased  and  the  profits  in  farming  consequently 
largely  reduced.  Many  of  the  children  living  on  the  farms  of 
New  York  are  practically  disinherited  from  the  soil  upon  which 
they  have  been  born  because  of  the  mistakes  of  their  fathers. 
But  while  the  soil  is  depleted,  it  is  by  no  means  exhausted  of  fer- 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture-  491 

tility  ;  and  by  the  study  of  its  necessities,  and  b}7  the  employment 
of  skill  and  intelligence  in  the  art  of  agriculture,  it  is  capable  of 
vast  improvement,  of  maintaining  a  great  population  and  adding 
to  the  greater  prosperity  of  those  who  shall  cultivate  it  while  con¬ 
tributing  to  the  general  prosperity  and  wealth  of  the  state.  The 
future  of  the  agriculture  of  the  Empire  State  can  be  determined 
through  educational  forces  and  our  public  schools  can  be  made  a 
most  certain  and  powerful  factor  in  its  elevation  to  a  much  higher 
position  of  prosperity.” 

The  following  are  samples  of  many  unsolicited  letters  showing 
how  this  type  of  efforts  appeals  to  teachers  : 

“  Your  visit  to  our  school  has  been  very  pleasantly  discussed 
by  many  of  our  students  and  teachers.  I  think  that  I  may  say 
by  the  more  intelligent  ones.  I  believe  it  sowed  seed  for  thought 
and  in  good  ground. 

”  We  have  perhaps  seventy-five  students  from  farms  and  pre¬ 
sumably  among  the  best  of  them,  and  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  a 
day  or  a  half  day  spent  by  them  under  the  instruction  of  your  de¬ 
partment,  by  coming  to  us,  will  be  sowing  seeds  that  will  yield 
some  sixty  and  some  a  hundred  fold. 

‘  ‘  I  want  to  express  myself  in  favor  of  such  work  being  done  in 
schools  like  ours  in  the  state. 

Most  respectfully  yours, 

B.  G.  Clapp, 

Principal  Fulton  High  School.” 

Fulton,  Oct.  28,  1896. 

X 

‘  ‘  I  send  you  under  separate  cover  a  number  of  letters  written 
by  some  of  the  children  whom  you  addressed.  They  are  sent  you 
just  as  written  by  the  pupils  without  assistance  and  are  self-ex¬ 
planatory. 

“We  will  be  pleased  to  use  whatever  help  you  can  give  us  for 
our  general  work  which  comes  about  once  in  two  weeks. 

‘  ‘  The  impression  you  made  upon  the  boys  and  girls  here  was 
excellent.  Yours  with  respect, 

Wm.  C.  Noll, 

Principal  Naples  Union  School.” 


Naples,  Nov.  16,  1896. 


492 


Bulletin  122. 


‘  ‘  Our  children  and  teachers  were  so  interested  in  the  work  pre¬ 
sented  by  Mr.  Powell  and  his  assistants,  that  we  write  to  thank 
the  Horticultural  Department,  through  you,  for  the  incentive  to 
work  along  the  lines  they  so  ably  indicated,  and  the  many  hints 
as  to  ways  and  means.  We  wish  we  might  have  still  further  in¬ 
struction. 

“Thanking  the  Department  again,  for  the  added  interest  we 
shall  take  in  the  teaching  of  noxious  insects,  the  necessity  for 
fresh  air,  and  plant  life  of  the  region,  I  am. 

Sincerely,  Mary  J.  Salisbury, 

Adams,  Nov.  3,  1896.  Principal.” 

“  It  is  with  pleasure  that  I  express  to  you  my  hearty  approval 
of  the  work  presented  to  our  school  by  your  instructors. 

‘  ‘  The  pupils  were  much  interested  and  I  believe  that  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  the  study  into  our  schools  must  certainly  meet  with 
very  practical  results.  Very  truly  yours, 

H.  W.  Harris, 
Principal  Union  School.”’ 

Arkport,  Nov.  2,  1896. 

Intimately  associated  with  these  two  attempts  to  teach  the 
rural  communities  by  personal  means,  has  run  the  effort  to 
awaken  a  living  interest  in  the  reading  of  bulletins  and  books. 
We  have  therefore  recommended,  in  every  one  of  our  schools  and 
meetings,  that  the  farmers  procure  certain  reading  matter  for 
study  and  reflection  during  the  winter  time.  We  have  printed 
circulars  of  suggestions  for  these  courses  of  reading,  a  copy  of 
which  is  here  reprinted  : 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR 

A  COURSE  OF  READING 

UPON  SUBJECTS  RELATING  TO  HORTICULTURE  (MORE  ESPECIALLY 

TO  FRUIT  growing). 

(SECOND  EDITION.) 

Most  of  the  reading  of  farmers  is  of  such  a  scattered  and 
haphazard  character,  that  the  reader  is  unable  to  obtain  any  con¬ 
secutive  or  fundamental  ideas  upon  the  various  subjects.  It  is 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


493 


suggested  that  each  local  farmer’s  club,  grange  or  horticultural 
society — or  a  neighborhood  gathering,  when  other  organizations 
do  not  exist — take  up  a  prescribed  line  of  reading  and  thinking 
for  the  coming  winter. 

The  company  which  desires  to  take  up  such  a  course  should 
be  thoroughly  organized,  and  each  reader  should  secure  and  own 
the  various  bulletins  and  books  which  are  to  be  read.  At  each 
meeting  a  prescribed  number  of  pages  is  laid  out  to  be  read 
before  the  next  gathering.  Upon  coming  together,  the  leader 
asks  a  member  to  read  the  first  paragraph  of  the  exercise  or 
lesson,  and  to  give  his  opinion  of  the  same.  Discussion  is  then 
called  for.  Each  paragraph  is  treated  in  similar  manner. 

It  is  obvious  that  one  of  the  best  subjects  to  select  for  the  first 
readings  is  the  soil  and  its  management.  Three  or  four  meetings 
could  be  very  profitably  spent  upon  this  general  topic.  From 
this,  it  would  be  well  to  pass  to  the  fertilizing  of  the  land.  After 
this,  various  special  topics  could  be  taken  up,  depending  upon  the 
interests  in  the  locality. 

The  course  of  reading  suggested  in  this  circular  is  designed  for 
introduction  following  the  Schools  of  Horticulture  which  are  held 
in  western  New  York  (the  Fourth  Judicial  Department),  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Nixon  or  Experiment  Station  Extension  Bill, 
which  provides  funds  for  disseminating  horticultural  knowledge 
in  this  territory.  The  circular,  therefore,  has  no  suggestions  for 
reading  in  subjects  pertaining  to  general  farming  and  stock  farm¬ 
ing,  although  the  silo  has  been  mentioned  because  it  may  become 
such  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  maintaining  of  the  fertility  of  many 
horticultural  farms.  The  readings  are  designed  to  be  merely  ele¬ 
mentary  and  introductory.  The  time  cannot  be  far  distant  when 
a  well-organized  series  of  agricultural  reading  circles,  and  corres¬ 
pondence  instruction,  will  be  demanded.  The  present  sugges¬ 
tions  cannot  be  more  than  temporary  expedients ;  and  as  soon  as 
any  company  or  club  desires  more  extended  study,  other  bulletins 
and  books  will  be  recommended. 

Only  such  bulletins  have  been  recommended  in  this  list  as  are 
published  in  this  state  (by  the  State  Experiment  Station  at 
Geneva,  and  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  at  Ithaca),  and  only 
those,  too,  which  are  of  a  general  nature,  or  those  which  can  be 


494 


Bulletin  122. 


called  reading  bulletins  rather  than  reference  or  technical  bulle¬ 
tins.  There  are  other  reading  bulletins  published  by  these  sta¬ 
tions  which  have  not  been  recommended  because  they  are  out  of 
print.  It  is  hoped  that  the  reading  of  these  bulletins  may  lead 
to  the  reading  of  books,  where  the  subjects  are  set  forth  in  more 
fullness.  E.  H.  Bailey, 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Soils  and  Tillage: 

Bulletin  119,  Cornell.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil  (I,.  H. 
Bailey). 

Bulletin  120,  Cornell.  The  Moisture  of  the  Soil  and  its 
Conservation  (L.  A.  Clinton). 

Bulletin  72,  Cornell.  The  Cultivation  of  Orchards  (L,.  H. 
Bailey). 

“The  Soil,”  by  F.  H.  King.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York.  75c. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers  : 

Bulletin  94,  State  Station.  The  Composition  and  Use  of 
Fertilizers  (L.  L.  VanSlyke). 

Bulletin  103,  Cornell.  Soil  Depletion  in  respect  to  the  Care 
of  Fruit  Trees  (  I.  P.  Roberts). 

Bulletin  102,  State  Station.  Silage  and  Silos  (W.  P. 
Wheeler). 

“The  Fertility  of  the  Eand,”  by  I.  P.  Roberts.  (In  press). 

Fruit  and  their  Cultivation  : 

Bulletin  69,  Cornell.  Hints  on  the  Planting  of  Orchards 
(L.  H.  Bailey). 

Bulletin  102,  Cornell.  General  Observations  respecting  the 
care  of  Fruit  Trees  (L.  H.  Bailey). 

“Fruit  Culture,”  by  W.  C.  Strong,  Rural  New  Yorker, 
N.  Y.  $1. 

Bulletin  84,  Cornell.  The  Recent  Apple  Failures  of  western 
New  York  (L.  H.  Bailey). 

Bulletin  74,  Cornell.  Impressions  of  the  Peach  Industry  in 
western  New  York  (L,.  H.  Bailey). 

Bulletin  100,  Cornell.  Evaporated  Raspberries  in  western 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  495 

New  York  (E.  H.  Bailey).  Gives  a  general  account  of 
evaporators,  and  of  raspberry  growing. 

Other  writings  upon  special  fruits  will  be  recommended  if  desired. 
Spraying,  Insects,  Diseases  : 

Bulletin  86.  Cornell.  The  Spraying  of  Orchards  (E.  G. 
Eodeman). 

Bulletin  101,  Cornell.  Notions  about  the  Spraying  of  Trees; 
with  Remarks  on  the  Canker-worm.  (E-  H.  Bailey). 

“The  Spraying  of  Plants,  ”  by  E.  G.  Eodeman.  The  Mac¬ 
millan  Co.,  New  York.  $1. 

The  Making  oe  Home  Grounds  : 

Bulletin  121,  Cornell.  Suggestions  for  the  Planting  of 
Shrubbery  (E.  H.  Bailey). 

Bulletin  90,  Cornell.  China  Asters  ;  with  Remarks  upon 
Flower-Beds  (E.  H.  Bailey). 

Helps  for  Teachers  : 

“Elements  of  Botany,”  byj.  Y.  Bergen.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

“Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Eeaves,”  by  Schuyler  Mathews. 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

“Plant  Eife  on  the  Farm,”  by  Maxwell  T.  Masters.  Orange 
Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

“Chemistry  of  the  Farm,”  by  R.  Warrington.  Orange  Judd 
Co.,  New  York. 


Every  grange  or  farmer's  club  should  be  slowly  accumulating  a 
library  of  good  rural  books  for  purposes  of  reference .  Advice  will 
be  given  when  desired. 

This  circular  is  simply  an  advisory  one,  although  we  are  con¬ 
vinced  that  it  has  already  awakened  a  genuine  interest  in  many 
quarters  in  its  subject.  We  find  that- there  are  very  few  rural 
books  which  are  adapted  to  the  needs  of  ch  ldren  or  which  can 
be  put  in  the  hands  of  teachers  in  the  country  schools.  We  have 
therefore  conceived  of  a  series  of  leaflets  upon  object  lessons,  deal¬ 
ing  with  common  things,  which  may  be  put  in  the  hands  of  teach¬ 
ers,  and,  when  desired,  of  pupils  as  well.  We  have  preferred  that 
these  little  texts  be  not  read  to  the  pupils  as  stories,  but  that  they 
shall  answer  as  suggestions  to  the  teachers  who  shall  have  the 
children  perform  the  simple  experiments  and  to  make  the  direct 
observations  which  are  there  indicated.  One  of  these  leaflets  is 
herewith  reprinted  : 


TEACHER’S  LEAFLETS 


No.  I. 


FOR  USE  IN  THE  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

PREPARED  BY 


DEC.  I,  1896. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY, 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

Issued  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Experiment  Station 
Extension,  or  Nixon  Law. 

By  L.  H.  Bailey. 


How  a  Squash  Plant  Gets  Out 

of  the  Seed. 


BY  L.  H.  BAILEY. 


old. 


If  one  were  to  plant  seeds  of  a  Hubbard  or  Boston 
Marrow  Squash  in  loose  warm  earth  in  a  pan  or 
box,  and  were  then  to  leave  the  parcel  for  a  week 
or  ten  days,  he  would  find,  upon  his  return,  a 
colony  of  plants  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  i.  If  he 
had  not  planted  the  seeds  himself  or  had  not  seen 
such  plants  before,  he  would  not  believe  that  these 
curious  plants  would  ever  grow  into  squash  vines, 
so  different  are  they  from  the  vines  which  we  know 
in  the  garden.  This,  itself,  is  a  most  curious  fact, 
— this  wonderful  difference  between  the  first  and  the 
later  stages  of  all  plants,  and  it  is  only  because  we 
know  it  so  well  that  we  do  not  wonder  at  it. 


Note. — These  leaflets  are  intended  for  the  teacher,  not  for  the  scholars. 
It  is  their  purpose  to  suggest  the  method  which  a  teacher  may  pursue  in 
instructing  children  at  odd  times  in  nature-study.  The  teacher  should  show 
the  children  the  objects  themselves, — should  plant  the  seeds,  raise  the  plants, 
collect  the  insects,  etc.;  or,  better,  he  should  interest  the  children  to  collect 
the  objects.  Advanced  pupils  however,  may  be  given  the  leaflets  and  asked 
to  perform  the  experiments  or  make  the  observations  which  are  suggested. 
The  scholars  themselves  should  be  taught  to  do  the  work  and  to  arrive  at 
independent  conclusions.  Teachers  who  desire  to  inform  themselves  more 
fully  upon  the  motives  of  this  nature-study  teaching,  should  write  for  a  copy 
of  Bulletin  122,  of  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


497 


It  may  happen,  however, — as  it  did  in  a  pan  of  seeds  which  I 
sowed  a  few  days  ago — that  one  or  two  of  the  plants  may  look 
like  that  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Here  the  seed  seems  to 
have  come  up  on  top  of  the  plant,  and  one  is  reminded 
of  the  curious  way  in  which  beans  come  up  on  the 
stalk  of  the  young  plant.  If  we  were  to  study  the 
matter,  however, — as  we  may  do  at  a  future  time, — 
we  should  find  a  great  difference  in  the  ways  in  which 
the  squashes  and  the  beans  raise  their 
seeds  out  of  the  ground.  It  is  not  our  ^ 
purpose  to  compare  the  squash  and  3<  Germination  just 
the  bean  at  this  time,  but  we  are  curi-  be zoning. 
ous  to  know  why  one  of  these  squash  plants  brings  its 
seed  up  out  of  the  ground  whilst  all  the  others  do 
not.  In  order  to  find  out  why  it  is,  we  must  ask  the 
plant,  and  this  asking  is  what  we  call  an  experiment. 
We  may  first  pull  up  the  two  plants.  The  first  one 
seed^coats out  (Fig-  !•)  will  be  seen  to  have  the  seed  still  attached  to 
ofthegroud.  the  very  lowest  part  of  the  stalk  below  the  soil,  but  the 

other  plant  has  no  seed  at  that  point.  We  will  now  plant  more 
seeds,  a  dozen  or  more  of  them,  so  that  we  shall  have  enough  to 

examine  two  or  three  times  a  day  for  several 
days.  A  day  or  two  after  the  seeds  are  planted, 
,oot  we  shall  find  a  little  point  or  root-like  portion 
breaking  out  of  the  sharp  end  of  the  seed,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  A  day  later  this  rr  *  portion  has  grown 
to  be  as  long  as  the  seed  itself  (Fig.  4) ,  and  it  has  turned 
directly  downwards  into  the  soil.  But  there  s  another  most  curi¬ 
ous  thing  about  this  germinating  seed.  Just 
where  the  root  is  breaking  out  of  the  seed 
(shown  at  a  in  Fig.  4),  there  is  a  little  peg  or 
projection.  In  Fig.  5,  about  a  day  later,  the 
root  has  grown  still  longer,  and  this  peg  seems 


2.  Squashplant 
which  has 


4.  The  r< 
and  peg. 


5.  Third  day  of 
root  growth. 


to  be  forcing  the  seed  apart.  In  Fig.  6,  however,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  seed  is  really  being  forced  apart  by  the  stem 
or  stalk  above  the  peg  for  this  stem  is  now  growing  longer. 
The  lower  lobe  of  the  seed  has  caught  upon  the  peg  (seen 
at  «,  Fig.  6),  and  the  seed-leaves  are  trying  to  back  out  of 


498 


Bulletin  122. 


6.  The  plant 
br  e  a  k  i  n  % 
out  of  the 
seed , 


the  seed.  Fig.  7,  shows  the  seed  still  a  day 
later.  The  root  has  now  produced  many 
branches  and  has  thoroughly  established 
itself  in  the  soil.  The  top  is  also  growing 
rapidly  and  is  still  backing  out  of  the  seed, 
and  the  seed  coats  are  still  firmly  held  by 
the  obstinate  peg. 

Whilst  we  have  been  seeing  all  these  curious  things 
in  the  seeds  which  we  have  dug  up, 
the  plantlets  which  we  have  not  dis- 
turbed  have  been  coming  through  the 

..  Tr  ,  ,  .  8.  The  plant  just 

sou.  If  we  were  to  see  the  plant  in  coming  up. 

Fig.  7,  as  it  was  “coming  up,”  it  would  look 
like  Fig.  8.  It  is  tugging  away  trying  to 
get  its  head  out  of  the  bonnet  which  is 
pegged  down  underneath  the  soil,  and  it  has 
“got  its  back  up”  in  the  operation.  In 
Fig.  9,  it  has  escaped  from  its  trap  and  it  is 
laughing  and  growing  in  delight.  It  must 
now  straighten  itself  up,  as  it  is  doing  in 
Fig.  10,  and  it  is  soon  standing  proud  and  straight, 
as  in  Fig.  1.  We  now  see  that  the  reason  why  the 
seed  came  up  on  the  plant  in  Fig. 

2,  is  because  in  some  way  the  peg 
did  not  hold  the  seed-coats  down 
(see  Fig.  13),  and  the  expanding 
leaves  are  pinched  together,  and 
they  must  get  themselves  loose  as  9 
best  they  can. 

There  is  another  thing  about  this  curious  squash 
plant  which  we  must  not  fail  to  notice,  and  this  is 
the  fact  that  these  first  two  leaves  of  the  plantlet 
came  out  of  the  seed  and  did  not  grow  out  of  the 
plant  itself.  We  must  notice,  too,  that  these  leaves 
are  much  smaller  when  they  are  first  drawn  out  of 
the  seed  than  they  are  when  the  plantlet  has 
straightened  itself  up.  That  is,  these  leaves  in¬ 
crease  very  much  in  size  after  they  reach  the  light 
'sirafghieL'ngVp.  and  air.  The  roots  of  the  plantlet  are  now  estab- 


operation 
J  ur  t  her 
progress¬ 
ed. 


The  plant  liber¬ 
ated  from  the  seed- 
coats. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 


499 


12.  Mark¬ 
ing  the 
root. 


lished  in  the  soil  and  are  taking  in  food  which  enables  the  plant 
to  grow.  The  next  leaves  which  appear  will  be  very  different 

from  these 
first  or  seed 
leaves.  5 
These  later 
ones  are 

called  the  true  leaves.  They  grow 
right  out  of  the  little  plant  itself. 

Fig.  ii  shows  these  true  leaves  as 
they  appear  on  a  young  Crookneck 
squash  plant,  and  the  plant  now 
begins  to  look  much  like  a  squash  vine. 

We  are  now  curious  to  know  how  the  stem  grows  when  it  backs 
out  of  the  seeds  and  pulls  the  little  seed-leaves  with  it,  and  how 
the  root  grows  downwards  into  the  soil.  Now  let  us  pull  up 


ii.  The  true 
leaves  de¬ 
veloping. 


13.  The  root  grows  in  the  end 
portions. 


another  seed  when  it  has  sent  a  single  root  about  two  inches  deep 
into  the  earth.  We  will  wash  it  very  carefully  and  lay  it  upon  a 
piece  of  paper.  Then  we  will  lay  a  ruler  alongside  of  it,  and 


5oo 


Bulletin  122. 


make  an  ink  mark  one-quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  tip,  and  two 
or  three  other  marks  at  equal  distances  above  (Fig.  12).*  We 
will  now  carefully  replant  the  seed.  Two  days  later  we  will  dig  it 
up,  when  we  shall  most  likely  find  a  condition  something  like 
that  in  Fig.  13.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  marks  E,  C,  B,  are 
practically  the  same  distance  apart  as  before  and  they  are  also 
the  same  distance  from  the  peg,  AA.  The  point  of  the  root  is  no 
longer  at  DD,  however,  but  has  grown  on  to  F.  The  root,  there¬ 
fore,  has  grown  almost  wholly  in  the  end  portion. 

Now  let  us  make  a  similar  experiment  with  the  stem  or  stalk. 
We  will  mark  a  young  stem,  as  at  A  in  Fig.  14;  but  the  next 
day  we  shall  find  that  these  marks  are  farther  apart  than  when  we 
made  them  (B,  Fig.  14).  The  marks  have  all  raised  themselves 
above  the  ground  as  the  plant  has  grown.  The  stem,  therefore,  has 
grown  between  the  joints  rather  than  from  the  tip.  The  stem 
usually  grows  most  rapidly,  at  any  given  time,  at  the  upper  or 
younger  portion  of  the  joint  (or  internode)  ;  and  the  joint  soon 
reaches  the  limit  of  its  growth  and  becomes  stationary,  and  a  new 
one  grows  out  above  it. 


Natural  science  consists  in  two  things , — seeing  what  you  look  at ,  and 
drawing  proper  coticlusions  from  what  you  see. 


*  Note. — Common  ink  will  not  answer  for  this  purpose  because  it  “runs  ” 
when  the  root  is  wet,  but  indelible  ink,  used  for  marking  linen  or  for  draw¬ 
ing,  should  be  used.  It  should  also  be  said  that  the  root  of  the  common 
pumpkin,  and  of  the  summer  bush  squashes,  is  too  fibrous  and  branchy  for 
this  test.  It  should  be  stated,  also,  that  the  root  does  not  grow  at  its  very 
tip,  but  chiefly  in  a  narrow  zone  just  back  of  the  tip  ;  but  the  determination 
of  this  point  is  rather  too  difficult  for  the  beginner. 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  501 

Respecting  the  general  necessity  and  requirements  for  such 
reading  course,  I  submit  the  following  report  from  Mr.  John  W. 
Spencer,  who  has  been  intimately  associated  with  this  district 
school  work  and  who  is  at  the  present  time  aiding  us  in  conduct¬ 
ing  a  correspondence  instruction  : 

‘  ‘  As  you  well  know,  a  reading  course  for  farmers  on  agricul¬ 
tural  topics,  after  the  plan  of  the  Chautauqua  course,  has  long 
been  a  cherished  plan  of  mine,  and  when  you  asked  me  to  go 
with  Mr.  Geo.  T.  Powell  during  the  month  of  October,  I  gladly 
accepted,  for  it  seemed  to  be  a  good  opportunity  to  test  the  prac¬ 
ticability  of  the  idea.  I  still  think  it  a  good  one,  but  the  month’s 
experience  has  shown  me  another  plan  more  expedient  for  the 
time  and  giving  more  lasting  and  practical  results.  I  do  not 
suggest  the  abandonment  of  the  plan  for  a  reading  course, 
but  that  it  be  held  in  abeyance  as  a  sequel  to  a  second  plan,  which 
is  this  :  That  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  Cornell  University 
prepare  papers  for  teachers  in  our  common  schools  qualifying 
them  to  develop  the  powers  of  observation  of  pupils  on  subjects 
pertaining  to  the  field,  forest,  and  household.  For  instance,  give 
each  child  a  piece  of  bread  and  the  teacher  draw  out  everything 
appealing  to  the  child’ s  eye.  The  teacher  could  supplement  many 
points  the  child  failed  to  observe.  Then  begin  an  inquiry  as  to 
why  such  and  such  points  come  to  be  so, — begin  a  study  of  the 
cause.  The  study  into  the  cause  of  the  perosity  of  the  bread 
could  be  made  to  lead,  step  by  step,  to  the  whole  chemistry  of 
baking,  and  from  that  to  starch  and  its  frequency  and  great  im¬ 
portance. 

“  I  do  not  suggest  that  these  exercises  be  made  an  added  reci¬ 
tation,  but  a  rest  exercise  of  twenty  minutes  for  once  or  twice  each 
week.  A  clever  teacher  can  give  such  subjects  a  wide  range  of 
adaptability  from  primary  to  nearly  the  highest  grade.  Themes  can 
be  made  of  some  of  the  most  familiar  subjects  involving  chemis¬ 
try,  insect,  plant  life,  and  geology,  arousing  observation  and 
a  spirit  of  inquiry  as  to  cause.  It  is  not  the  superstructure  that  I 
think  this  plan  would  build,  but  the  foundations  for  the  super¬ 
structure,  which  is  most  important.  Introduced  into  the  schools, 
there  would  be  a  double  benefit, — first  upon  the  child,  and  then 
when  he  went  home  and  talked  about  it  with  his  parents  they  too 


502 


Bulletin  122. 


would  unconsciously  become  pupils.  This  last  may  seem  mere)}7 
incidental  but  I  am  sure  that  the  aggregate  results  will  be  im¬ 
mense.  It  takes  only  five  to  eight  years  to  raise  a  crop  of  boys 
and  girls  to  the  point  where  the  majority  of  them  are  thinking  of 
their  qualification  of  getting  their  own  living,  and  their  prepara¬ 
tion  will  be  vastly  enhanced,  particularly  for  farm  life,  if  they 
have  developed  an  inquiring  spirit  to  know  the  why  of  things. 

“During  the  month  of  October  I  visited,  either  alone  or  with  Mr. 
Powell,  forty-two  schools,  representing  an  attendance  of  4,687  pu¬ 
pils,  located  in  the  counties  of  Chautauqua,  Erie,  Niagara,  Monroe, 
Livingston,  Ontario,  Steuben,  Oswego,  Jefferson  and  Oneida,  and 
the  schools  have  ranged  from  the  brick  temple  of  one  thousand 
pupils  to  the  little  school  house  of  eleven.  The  children  every¬ 
where  are  alike, — all  eager  for  instruction,  and  so  are  the  teachers, 
except  some  with  only  one  or  two  years’  experience,  who  feel  a  lack 
of  preparation  and  fear  that  they  might  not  do  the  proper  thing, 
but  when  assured  that  the  plan  of  observation  exercises  was  to 
reach  the  children  only  by  fully  equipping  the  teacher, all  hesitation 
was  banished.  Not  a  single  teacher  has  made  an  objection  to  the 
plan. 

“  In  conclusion,  I  would  suggest  that  your  department  prepare 
observation  exercises  in  the  spirit  of  the  foregoing  remarks.  To 
schools  employing  the  highest  grade  teachers,  no  solicitation  will 
be  necessary  more  than  to  present  the  literature.  To  the  hamlet 
and  district  schools  an  exemplification  of  the  work  to  the  pupils 
will  promote  its  adoption.  I  would  advise  pushing  this  last  in¬ 
dustriously  during  the  present  winter,  depending  for  its  future 
spread  upon  the  popularity  given  by  those  schools  visited  this  win¬ 
ter  and  by  working  through  such  centers  as  teachers’  institutes 
in  the  next  school  year.” 

This  correspondence-instruction  is  likewise  experimental ;  that 
is,  we  are  endeavoring  at  the  present  time  to  determine  just  how 
it  can  be  carried  on  under  our  limitations  and  for  New  York 
State.  We  have  no  authority  by  law  to  establish  a  permanent  or 
organic  system  of  reading  courses  throughout  our  territory.  We 
have  kept  the  names  of  the  participants  in  all  of  our  September 
schools  and  we  have  the  names  of  the  teachers  and  officers  in  the 
various  rural  and  village  schools  which  we  have  visited.  In  each 


Extension  Work  in  Horticulture.  503 

of  these  public  schools  we  have  requested  the  teacher  to  have  the 
pupils  write  their  next  compositions  upon  the  subjects  which  were 
presented  by  our  instructors,  and  to  forward  these  compositions  to 
us  as  samples  of  the  kind  and  extent  of  interest  which  the  children 
may  be  expected  to  take  in  this  work.  Both  teachers  and  children 
have  responded  with  surprising  readiness,  and  the  correspondence 
from  this  source  which  has  already  accumulated  is  large  and  is  an 
indication  that  the  work  can  be  greatly  extended  with  the  most 
marked  benefits.  We  have  also  taken  the  opportunity  to  write  to 
the  various  correspondents  who  have  been  interested  in  our  work, 
asking  them  certain  specific  questions  upon  certain  bulletins 
which  we  have  sent  them  and  which  have  been  used  as  texts  in 
the  schools,  particularly  upon  Bulletins  1 19  and  120  (The  Texture 
of  the  Soil  and  the  Moisture  of  the  Soil).  This  correspondence 
has  been  the  means  of  tying  together  the  various  agricultural 
interests  of  the  Fourth  Judicial  Department  and  the  College  of 
Agriculture  of  Cornell  University,  and  has  resulted  in  a  natural 
and  organic  union  which,  it  seems  to  me,  it  would  be  violence  to 
break. 

All  this  work,  as  I  have  said,  has  been  experimental, — an 
attempt  to  discover  the  best  method  of  teaching  the  people  in 
agriculture.  We  believe  that  the  most  efficient  means  of  elevat¬ 
ing  the  ideals  and  practice  of  the  rural  communities  are  as  follows, 
in  approximately  the  order  of  fundamental  importance:  (1) 
The  establishment  of  nature-study  or  object-lesson  study,  combined 
with  field  walks  and  incidental  instruction  in  the  principles  of 
farm-practice  in  the  rural  schools  ;  (2)  the  establishment  of  cor¬ 
respondence-instruction  in  connection  with  reading-courses, 
binding  together  the  University,  the  rural  schools,  and  all  rural 
literary  or  social  societies  ;  (3)  itinerant  or  local  experiment  and 
investigation,  made  chiefly  as  object-lessons  to  farmers  and  not 
for  the  purpose,  primarily,  of  discovering  scientific  facts  ;  (4)  the 
publication  of  reading  bulletins  which  shall  inspire  a  quickened 
appreciation  of  rural  life,  and  which  may  be  used  as  texts  in  rural 
societies  and  in  the  reading  courses,  and  which  shall  prepare  the 
way  for  the  reading  of  the  more  extended  literature  in  books  ;  (5) 
the  sending  out  of  special  agents  as  lecturers  or  teachers,  or  as 
investigators  of  special  local  difficulties,  or  as  itinerant  instructors 


504 


Bulletin  *122. 


in  the  normal  schools  and  before  the  training  classes  of  the  teach¬ 
ers’  institutes  ;  (6)  the  itinerant  agricultural  school,  somewhat 
after  the  plan  of  our  horticultural  schools,  which  shall  be  equipped 
with  the  very  best  teachers  and  which  shall  be  given  as  rewards 
to  the  most  intelligent  and  energetic  communities. 

All  these  agencies,  to  be  most  efficient,  should  be  under  the 
direction  of  a  single  bureau  wholly  removed  from  partisan  politi¬ 
cal  influence  and  intimately  associated  with  investigational  work 
in  agriculture.  Such  a  bureau  should  also  have  most  intimate 
relations  with  the  department  of  Public  Instruction,  for  not  only 
must  the  public  schools  be  reached,  but  teachers  must  be  trained. 
The  teachers  in  our  public  schools  are  now  of  a  high  grade,  and 
they  will  quickly  seize  opportunities  to  prepare  themselves  to 
teach  the  elements  of  rural  science.  There  should  be  facilities 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  every  normal  school  in  the  state,  whereby 
it  may  receive  courses  of  lectures  upon  rural  subjects  from  teach¬ 
ers  of  recognized  ability,  and  teaching-helps,  in  the  way  of  exposi¬ 
tory  leaflets,  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  who 
desires  them.  All  this  work  of  carrying  the  modern  university 
extension  impulse,  to  the  country,  is  too  important  and  too  funda¬ 
mental  to  be  confined  to  any  one  particular  agricultural  interest 
or  to  any  one  district  of  the  state  ;  and  it  is  a  work,  too,  which 
should  be  treated  as  a  teaching  extension  and  not  as  an  experi¬ 
ment  station  extension. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  say  that  the  farmers,  as  a  whole,  are 
willing  and  anxious  for  education.  They  are  difficult  to  reach 
because  they  have  not  been  well  taught,  not  because  they  are 
unwilling  to  learn.  It  is  astonishing,  as  one  thinks  of  it,  how 
scant  and  poor  has  been  the  teaching  which  has  even  a  remote 
relation  to  the  tilling  of  the  soil  ;  and  many  of  our  rural  books 
seem  not  to  have  been  born  of  any  real  sympathy  with  the  former 
or  any  just  appreciation  of  his  environments.  Just  as  soon  as  our 
educational  methods  are  adapted  to  the  farmer’s  needs,  and  are 
born  of  a  love  of  farm  life  and  are  inspired  with  patriotism,  will 
the  rural  districts  begin  to  rise  in  irresistible  power. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

U.  H.  Bailey. 

In  charge  of  the  scientific  and  teaching  work  of  the  Nixon  bill. 
Cornell  University,  December  1,  1896. 


Bulletin  123. 


December,  1896. 
Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

ENTOMOLOGICAL  DIVISION. 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


By  M.  V.  SLINGERLAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY, 
ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1896. 


ORGANIZATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL: 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


President,  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 


Hon.  A.  D.  White, 
Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  I.  P.  Roberts, 
Professor  G.  C.  Caldwell, 
Professor  James  Law,  - 
Professor  J.  H.  Comstock, 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey, 
Professor  H.  H.  Wing,  - 
Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson, 


Trustee  of  the  University. 
President  State  Agricultural  Society. 

Agriculture. 
-  Chemistry. 
Veterinary  Science. 
-  Entomology. 
Horticulture. 
Dairy  Husbandry. 

Botany. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  STATION. 

I.  P.  Roberts,  ----- 
E.  L.  Williams,  - 

E.  A.  Butler,  -  -  -  -  - 


Director. 
Treasurer. 
-  Clerk. 


M.  V.  Slingerland, 
G.  W.  Cavanaugh, 
L.  A.  Clinton, 

B.  M.  Duggar, 


ASSISTANTS. 

Entomology. 
Chemistry. 
Agriculture. 
Cryptogamic  Botany. 


Office  of  the  Director,  20  Morrill  Hall. 

The  regular  bulletins  of  the  Station  are  sent  free  to  all  who  request  them. 


BULLETINS  OF  1896. 

106.  Revised  Opinions  of  the  Japanese  Plums. 

107.  Wireworms  and  the  Bud  Moth. 

108.  The  Pear  Psylla  and  the  New  York  Plum  Scale. 

109.  Geological  History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt, 
no.  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

in.  Sweet  Peas. 

1 12.  The  1895  Chrysanthemums. 

1 13.  Diseases  of  the  Potato. 

1 14.  Spray  Calendar. 

1 15.  The  Pole  Lima  Beans. 

1 16.  Dwarf  Apples. 

1 1 7.  Fruit  Brevities. 

1 18.  Food  Preservatives  and  Butter  Increasers. 

1 19.  The  Texture  of  the  Soil. 

120.  The  Moisture  of  the  Soil  and  its  Conservation. 

1 21.  Suggestions  for  the  Planting  of  Shrubbery. 

122.  Second  Report  upon  Extension  Work  in  Horticulture. 

123.  Green  Fruit  Worms. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  23,  1896. 
Honorable  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  Albany. 

Sir  :  This  bulletin  contains  a  history  of  some  insects  which 
have  recently  caused  considerable  damage  in  our  state.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  description  of  the  insects,  with  the  methods  of 
combating  the  same,  will  prove  of  value  to  our  fruit  growers. 
This  paper  is  therefore  submitted  for  publication  under  Chapter 
437,  of  the  Laws  of  1896.  L.  H.  Bailey. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction. 

What  Green  Fruit  Worms  are.  Page  510. 
Habits  and  Food  of  the  Caterpillars  and  Moths. 
Their  History  and  Distribution.  Page  51 1. 
Their  Eife-history.  Page  512. 

The  Different  Species  Discussed.  Pages  513-51 

1.  Xylina  antemiata  Walk.  Page  514. 

2.  Xylina  laticinerea  Grt.  Page  516. 

3.  Xylina  grotei  Riley.  Page  518. 

Natural  Enemies.  Page  519. 

How  to  Combat  these  Fruit-eating  Caterpillars. 


Page  510. 


Page  520. 


GREEN  FRUIT  WORMS. 

« 


Xylina  antemiata  Walk. 

Xylina  laticinerea  Grt. 

Xylina grotei  Riley. 

Order  LepidopTERA  ;  family  Noctuidae. 

In  New  York  state,  the  year  1896  has  been  marked  by  the 
appearance  in  destructive  numbers  of  several  insects  which  have 
not  been  noticeably  injurious  here  during  the  past  decade  or 
more.  The  army  worm,  which  in  July  ravaged  field  crops  in 
nearly  every  county  in  the  state,  is  a  familiar  example  ;  and  the 
insects  discussed  in  this  bulletin  also  afford  another  illustration  of 
this  fact. 

Most  of  our  correspondence  during  May  and  June  related  to 
the  cause  of  the  large  holes  being  eaten  into  the  sides  of  young 
fruits,  especially  apples.  The  depredators  proved  to  be  large, 
light  green  caterpillars  that  have  been  popularly  known  as 
4t  green  fruit  worms.”  As  these  caterpillars  had  not  seriously 
troubled  New  York  fruit  growers  since  1877,  they  were  a  new 
insect  pest  to  many.  This  year  specimens  were  sent  to  the  insec¬ 
tary  from  the  following  twelve  counties  :  Niagara,  Genesee, 
Orleans,  Wayne,  Oswego,  Chautauqua,  Ontario,  Columbia,  Clin¬ 
ton,  Tompkins,  Seneca  and  Saratoga.  Judging  from  the  reports 
accompanying  the  specimens,  the  caterpillars  evidently  did  the 
most  damage  in  the  first  five  counties  named.  It  was  estimated 
that  at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  apple  crop  was  injured  in  many 
localities.  Had  there  not  been  an  unusually  heavy  crop  of  apples 
all  over  the  state  this  year,  the  destruction  of  so  large  a  percent¬ 
age  of  the  young  fruit  by  these  caterpillars  would  have  been  a 
much  more  serious  matter.  Fruit  growers  should  acquaint  them¬ 
selves  with  these  fruit-eating  caterpillars  so  as  to  guard  against 
their  ravages  in  the  future,  when  there  may  not  be  so  many  young 
fruits  to  spare  as  there  were  this  year. 


5io  Bulletin  123. 

What  They  Are. 

These  green  fruit  worms  are  large,  light  yellowish  or  apple- 
green  caterpillars,  with  a  narrow  cream-colored  stripe  down  the 
middle  of  the  back,  a  wide  cream-colored  stripe  along  each  side, 
and  many  similarly  colored  mottlings  or  spots  which  sometimes 
form  quite  distinct  stripes  along  the  body  above  the  broad  lateral 
stripes.  When  fully  grown  they  range  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length.  Some  of  them  are  shown  at  work  in  the  illustration 
on  the  title  page,  and  at  a ,  plate  2  ;  figures  /and^,  plate  I,  c  and 
d,  plate  3,  and  b,  plate  2  are  from  photographs  of  the  worms  taken 
twice  natural  size.  Tike  many  other  caterpillars,  these  green  fruit 
worms  are  the  offspring  or  younger  stage  of  insects  known  as 
moths  or  millers.  These  adult  forms  are  represented  natural  size 
at  b ,  plate  1 ,  at  a,  plate  3  and  at  fy  plate  2  ;  and  also  twice  natural 
size  in  the  same  plates. 

Habits  and  Food  of  the  Caterpillars  and  Moths. 

For  several  years  before  the  fruit-eating  habit  of  these  green 
fruit  worms  was  discovered,  they  were  known  to  feed  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  apple  and  several  forest  trees  ;  the  leaves  of  poplar, 
hickory,  wild  cherry,  box-elder,  and  the  buds  of  roses  are  recorded 
among  their  food-plants.  During  the  summer  of  1870,  however, 
the  insects  attracted  unusual  attention  in  Missouri  and  Illinois  by 
being  frequently  found  eating  or  boring  into  apples,  peaches  and 
the  spongy  oak-apple  (a  large  apple-like  swelling  or  gall  often 
produced  on  oak  leaves  by  a  minute  gall-fly.)  This  year,  pears, 
peaches,  plums,  currants,  and  quinces  were  eaten  in  New  York 
state,  but  the  caterpillars  confined  themselves  mostly  to  an  apple 
diet.  We  have  not  observed  the  worms  boring  into  the  fruit. 
They  simply  begin  eating  on  one  side  and  often  continue  feeding 
until  nearly  half  of  the  fruit  is  eaten,  leaving  a  large  cavity  on  that 
side  (see  illustration  on  title  page,  and  figure  a ,  plate  2).  They 
work  during  May  and  the  first  half  of  June,  and  are  not  to  be 
found  on  the  trees  again  during  the  year.  The  insects  go  from 
fruit  to  fruit,  one  caterpillar  thus  ruining  several  fruits ;  an 
instance  is  recorded  of  one  worm  destroying  six  of  the  eight 
quinces  on  a  tree.  The  caterpillars  feed  during  the  day,  and 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


5ii 

probably  also  at  night.  When  young,  they  doubtless  feed  upon 
the  foliage  or  buds,  for,  when  the  fruit  is  large  enough  for  them 
to  eat,  the  worms  are  found  to  be  halt  grown  or  more.  One  of 
our  correspondents  writes  :  “We  grafted  some  young  Dutchess 
pear  trees  this  spring,  and  have  had  to  watch  them  continually  to 
keep  these  worms  from  destroying  the  buds.  ’  ’ 

We  have  found  some  of  the  caterpillars  apparently  resting  dur¬ 
ing  the  day  on  a  silken  web  spun  on  one  side  of  a  partly  rolled 
leaf;  some  of  our  correspondents  have  also  observed  this.  We 
suspect  that  this  is  not  a  normal  habit  of  the  insects,  for  the  only 
occasion  we  saw  it  resorted  to  in  our  cages  was  in  the  case  of  the 
caterpillar  shown  in  figure  d ,  plate  4 ;  it  was  suffering  from  a 
serious  internal  trouble  in  the  form  of  a  parasitic  grub  which 
finally  came  out  and  fastened  the  worm  to  the  leaf  with  its  silken 
cocoon  (see  the  figure) . 

Dr.  Riley  has  recorded  that  the  caterpillars  can  pinch  with  their 
little  jaws  quite  sharply,  so  as  to  draw  a  little  blood  from  a  tender 
part.  The  worms  are  easily  disturbed  at  their  work  of  feeding  on 
the  fruits,  for  if  the  tree  or  limb  be  suddenly  jarred,  they  at  once 
drop  to  the  ground,  not  spinning  down  by  a  silken  thread  as  do 
the  canker  worms. 

The  parents  of  these  green  fruit  worms — the  moths — are  night- 
flyers,  remaining  concealed  on  the  bark  of  the  trees  or  in  other 
secluded  places  during  the  day.  Most  of  them  appear  during 
September  and  October,  and,  hibernating  in  sheltered  places, 
appear  again  in  March,  April  and  May  ;  some  evidently  remain 
in  the  ground  as  pupae  over  winter,  the  moths  not  appearing 
until  spring.  They  are  readily  attracted  to  lights  or  sweetened 
baits  at  night,  and  are  “  often  found  in  maple  groves  while  sugar¬ 
ing  is  going  on.  Sometimes  sap-pails  are  found  in  the  morning 
with  the  surface  of  the  liquid  completely  covered  with  the  moths.” 

Their  History  and  Distribution. 

These  green  fruit  worms  first  attracted  serious  attention  by 
boring  into  apples  and  pears  in  1870,  in  Missouri  and  Illinois ; 
Dr.  Riley  also  states  that  he  had  seen  them  for  several  years  pre¬ 
viously  on  the  foliage  of  different  trees.  A  newspaper  slip, 
written  in  1872,  states  that  the  insects  were  very  common  and 


512 


Bulletin  123. 


destructive  in  the  South,  where  the  worms  made  their  appearance 
during  April  and  May,  in  the  latitude  of  Mobile  and  New 
Orleans.  In  1877,  the  caterpillars  appeared  in  large  numbers  in 
the  orchards  in  the  vicinity  of  Lockport,  N.  Y.  Professor  Com¬ 
stock  investigated  this  outbreak  and  found  that  much  damage 
had  been  done  in  many  apple  and  pear  orchards.  In  the  case  of 
one  young  pear  orchard,  he  counted  the  whole  number  of  pears 
on  several  trees  and  found  that  45  per  cent  of  them  had  been 
injured  by  the  caterpillars.  It  was  noted  that  this  orchard  was 
adjoining  a  forest  from  which  the  insects  may  have  spread.  It  is 
a  curious  fact  that  although  these  green  fruit  worms  were  so 
numerous  in  1877,  they  seem  not  to  have  attracted  attention  again 
anywhere  in  New  York  state  until  1896,  nineteen  years  later. 
In  1888,  quite  a  number  of  apples  were  found  apparently  injured 
by  these  caterpillars  in  Maine. 

The  adult  insects — the  moths — are  not  uncommon  in  Canada 
and  the  northern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  United  States  ;  and 
the  insects  have  been  recorded  as  injurious  in  the  South  and  as 
far  west  as  Nevada.  Collectors  report  the  moths  as  common  in, 
and  we  have  this  year  received  the  caterpillars  from,  several 
widely  separated  localities  in  New  York  state.  Thus,  these  fruit¬ 
eating  caterpillars  are  very  generally  distributed  throughout 
Canada  and  the  United  States. 

Their  Life  History. 

The  green  fruit  worms  do  most  of  their  damage  to  the  young 
fruits  in  May,  but  some  of  them  continue  working  until  nearly 
the  middle  of  June.  During  the  first  week  in  June  most  of  the 
caterpillars  get  their  full  growth  and  then  burrow  into  the  soil 
beneath  the  trees  to  a  depth  of  from  an  inch  to  three  inches. 
Here  they  roll  and  twist  their  bodies  about  until  a  smooth  earthen 
cell  is  formed.  Most  of  them  then  spin  about  themselves  a  very 
thin  silken  cocoon ;  some  spin  no  cocoon.  Within  the  cocoon  or 
the  earthen  cell,  the  caterpillar  soon  undergoes  a  wonderful 
transformation  which  results  in  what  is  known  as  the  pupa  of  the 
insect.  One  of  these  dark  brown,  lifeless-looking  pupae  is 
shown,  natural  size,  at  c,  plate  2,  and  enlarged  on  the  same 
plate.  Most  of  these  insects  spend  about  three  months  of  their 


PIRATE  I. — Xylina  antennata  Walker,  a,  the  moth  at  rest,  natural  size  ;  b,  the  moth,  nat¬ 
ural  size  ;  c,  the  pupa,  enlarged  ;  d,  caudal  segment  of  the  pupa,  much  enlarged  ;  e,  the 
caterpillar  at  work,  natural  size;  f  and  g,  the  caterpillar,  dorsal  and  lateral  views,  twice 
natural  size  ;  h,  the  moth,  twice  natural  size. 


PLATE  II. — Xylina  lacticinerea  Grote.  a,  the  caterpillar  at  work ,  natural  size  ;  b,  the 
caterpillar ,  twice  natural  size  ;  c,  the  pupa ,  natural  size  ;  d,  the  pupa ,  enlarged  ;  e,  cau¬ 
dal  segment  of  pupa,  much  enlarged  ;  f,  the  moth,  natural  size  ;  g,  the  moth,  twice  nat¬ 
ural  size. 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


5i3 


life  in  the  ground  during  the  summer  in  this  pupal  stage.  Some 
evidently  hibernate  as  pupae,  and  thus  pass  nine  months  or  more 
of  their  life  in  this  stage.  Usually  about  September  1 5th,  the 
moths  break  their  pupal  shrouds  and  work  their  way  to  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  soil.  Most  of  them  emerge  in  the  fall  before  October 
15th,  and  pass  the  winter  as  moths  in  sheltered  nooks ;  some  evi¬ 
dently  do  not  emerge  until  spring.  Warm  spells  in  winter  some¬ 
times  arouses  a  few  of  them  from  their  hibernation. 

During  the  first  warm  days  of  early  spring,  all  the  moths 
appear,  and  doubtless  the  mothers  soon  begin  laying  eggs.  No 
observations  have  been  made  on  the  eggs  or  young  caterpillars  in 
the  North,  but  in  a  newspaper  article  published  in  the  South  in 
1872,  it  is  stated  that  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  spring  on  the 
undersides  of  the  leaves.  They  hatch  in  a  few  days,  and  the 
young  worms  begin  at  once  to  eat  the  foliage,  or  the  fruit,  or 
both. 

There  is  thus  but  one  brood  of  these  green  fruit  worms  in  a 
year.  They  work  mostly  in  May,  pupate  in  the  soil  in  June,  live 
as  pupae  during  the  summer  and  sometimes  all  winter,  and  most 
of  the  moths  emerge  in  the  fall  and  hibernate,  laying  their  eggs 
in  the  spring. 

The  Different  Species  Discussed. 

In  all  previous  discussions  of  an  economic  nature  regarding 
these  green  fruit  worms,  they  have  been  considered  as  comprising 
but  a  single  species  of  insect,  namely,  the  ash-gray  pinion 
( Xylina  antennata).  However,  when  the  specimens  of  the  cater¬ 
pillars  began  to  arrive  at  the  insectary  last  spring,  it  was  soon 
evident  that  there  were  at  least  two  quite  different  kinds.  We 
grew  the  supposed  two  species  separately  in  our  cages.  When 
the  moths  appeared  in  September,  they  were  sent  to  an  expert, 
Professor  J.  B.  Smith,  for  determination.  He  returned  them 
labelled  as  three  distinct  species  !  We  had  thus  bred  two  species 
of  moths  in  the  cage  where  we  thought  we  had  only  one  kind  of 
green  fruit  worm.  As  the  moths  of  all  three  species  showed 
remarkable  resemblances  to  each  other*  (compare  figures  b  and  hy 

^Professor  Smith  writes  :  “As  I  have  them  divided  in  my  collection  you 
can  tell  the  difference  between  them  ;  but  if  you  undertake  to  locate  it  you 
will  become  lost  in  a  short  time.” 


1 


5*4 


BUIEETlN  123. 


plate  1,  figures  a  and  b ,  plate  3,  and  figures/  and  g,  plate  2),  we 
at  once  began  a  search  for  characters  which  might  separate  the 
insects  in  their  caterpillar  or  pupal  stages.  It  had  been  an  easy 
matter  from  the  first  to  separate  the  caterpillars  into  two  distinct 
kinds,  as  represented  in  figures  e ,  plate  1  and  a ,  plate  2,  or^, 
plate  1  and  b ,  plate  2.  It  was  also  found  that  the  pupae  developed 
from  these  two  kinds  of  caterpillars  were  quite  different ;  this 
difference  is  well  shown  in  figures  df  plate  1  and  e ,  plate  2.  Very 
fortunately,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  L.  O.  Howard,  U-  S. 
Entomologist,  we  were  able  to  examine  the  single  specimen  pre¬ 
served  of  the  caterpillars  which  Dr.  Riley  had  under  observation 
when  he  wrote  of  the  insect  in  1870.  This  specimen  (figured  at 
c  and  d,  plate  3,  twice  natural  size)  revealed  some  characters 
which  we  had  overlooked,  and  enabled  us  to  separate  the  cater¬ 
pillars  we  had  had  in  one  cage  into  two  species.  We  were  also 
able  to  connect  each  species  of  caterpillar  with  the  moth  of  the 
same  species.  In  the  discussion  of  the  three  species  which  fol¬ 
lows,  the  differences  mentioned  above,  and  several  others,  are 
more  fully  brought  out. 

1.  Xylina  antennata  Walk. 

About  three -fourths  of  all  the  green  fruit  worms  sent  to  the 
insectary  were  of  this  species ;  from  some  localities,  however, 
nearly  as  many  of  the  next  species  discussed  were  received. 

As  early  as  1858,  a  moth  of  this  species  (habitat  unknown)  found  its  way 
into  the  British  Museum,  and  was  there  first  described  and  named.  When 
Dr.  Riley  discussed  these  green  fruit  worms  in  1871,  he  also  described  the 
moths  and  named  them  Xylina  cinerea.  In  1879,  specimens  of  X.  cinerea 
were  taken  to  England  by  Dr.  Fernald  and  there  compared  with  Walker’s 
X.  antennata ,  and  the  identity  of  the  insects  thus  established.  In  1882,  Dr. 
Riley  stated  (Papilio,  II,  101)  that  his  description  of  the  moths  of  these 
insects  included  all  three  of  the  species  to  be  discussed  here  ;  but  he  con¬ 
sidered  two  of  the  forms  as  only  varieties,  and  not  distinct  species.  Mr.  A. 
G.  Butler  of  the  British  Museum,  has  recently  also  expressed  his  opinion 
(The  Entomologist  for  1891,  p.  242)  that  all  three  forms  were  only  variations 
of  a  single  species,  X.  antennata.  Our  authorities  on  this  group  of  moths, 
Professor  Smith  and  Mr.  Grote,  however,  have  considered  them  as  three  dis¬ 
tinct  species  ;  and  our  study  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  insects  confirms  this 
conclusion. 

As  all  three  species  apparently  occur  in  the  same  localities,  and  as  the 
moths  are  so  remarkably  similar  in  size,  color,  and  markings,  it  is  not  sur- 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


5i5 


prising  that  they  should  be  classed  as  varieties  of  one  species.  We  have 
never  before  seen  three  species  of  moths  which  showed  such  remarkable 
resemblances  to  each  other,  and  yet  were  quite  different  in  their  caterpillar 
and  pupal  stages. 

At  a  on  plate  1  is  shown  a  moth  of  X.  antennata ,  natural  size  ;  the  figure 
is  reproduced  from  a  photograph  taken  from  life  while  the  moth  was  at  rest 
in  the  top  of  one  of  our  cages.  At  b ,  plate  1,  the  moth  is  shown  with  wings 
expanded,  natural  size,  and  at  h  is  shown  same  moth,  twice  natural  size. 
These  figures  will  show  the  size  and  markings  of  the  moth,  and  also  represent 
nearly  its  natural  color.  It  usually  differs  from  the  moth  of  X.  laticinerea 
in  the  ground  color  of  its  wings  being  of  a  more  brownish  cast ;  and  from 
the  moth  of  X.  grotei  in  that  its  markings  are  not  so  bright  and  distinct. 
There  may  be  slight  antennal  differences  in  the  males  of  the  three  species, 
and  there  are  certainly  quite  marked  differences  in  the  male  genitalia  of  X. 
antennata  and  X.  grotei  as  is  shown,  enlarged,  at  g  and plate  3. 

The  moth  of  X.  antennata  began  to  emerge  in  our  cages  September  13th, 
and  all  had  appeared  by  October  6th  ;  the  specimens  which  Professor  Com¬ 
stock  reared  in  1877  emerged  September  17th.  In  the  following  table  the 
recorded  captures  of  the  moths,  at  lights  or  sweetened  baits,  are  given. 


Place. 

Dates. 

N.  Y.  state . . 

Clyde,  N.  Y . 

Schenectady.  N.  Y . 

Newark,  N.  J . 

Orillia,  Ont . 

St.  Catherines,  Ont . 

Newton,  Mass . 

Kvanston,  Ill . 

Maywood,  Ill . 

Aug.  4,  Sept.  26,  Oct.  10,  Apr.  8,  20. 
Sept.  10,  and  warm  spells  in  winter 
up  to  Apr.  15. 

Sept.  15,  30. 

September. 

Sept.  16,  May. 

Sept.  16. 

Sept.,  Oct.,  March,  Apr.  and  May. 
October. 

Aug.  18,  26. 

The  above  table  shows  that  the  adults  have  appeared  in  some  localities  in 
August,  but  most  of  the  records  agree  in  giving  September  and  October  as 
the  months  when  they  are  usually  seen  in  the  fall.  The  fact  that  the  moths 
hibernate,  as  shown  by  Mr.  Devereaux’s  captures  during  warm  spells  in 
winter  at  Clyde,  N.  Y. ,  explains  the  records  of  captures  in  March,  April  and 
May.  In  some  localities  or  seasons,  perhaps  all  of  the  moths  of  this  species 
do  not  emerge  in  the  fall,  but  hibernate  as  pupae.  Our  breeding  experi¬ 
ments.  however,  indicate  that  all  emerge  in  the  fall,  differing  in  this  respect 
from  X.  laticinerea  as  will  be  shown  later. 

As  was  stated  in  the  general  discussion  of  the  life-history  of  these  green 
fruit  worms,  doubtless  egg-laying  takes  place  early  in  the  spring,  and  the 
young  caterpillars  feed  upon  the  buds  and  leaves  until  May  when  the  fruit  is 
large  enough  for  them  to  eat.  The  further  life-history  of  this  species  follows 
closely  the  general  account  just  mentioned. 


Bulletin  123. 


516 

The  caterpillar  of  this  species  is  figured,  natural  size,  eating  the  apple,  on 
the  right  in  the  frontispiece,  and  twice  natural  size,  both  lateral  and  dorsal 
views,  at  f  and  g,  plate  i.  It  is  of  a  light  apple-green  color,  sometimes 
yellowish,  with  the  head  of  nearly  the  same  color,  and  the  venter  darker. 
As  the  figures  show,  the  hair-bearing  spots  are  white  and  very  distinct.  A 
narrow  mesal  cream-colored  stripe,  slightly  wider  near  the  middle  of  the 
body,  extends  along  the  dorsum  ;  there  is  a  slightly  narrower,  but  distinct 
subdorsal  stripe  of  the  same  color  that  is  somewhat  broken  toward  the 
extremites ;  there  is  also  a  wide,  stigmatal,  cream-colored  stripe,  mostly 
below  the  spiracles,  with  its  lower  or  ventral  edge  sharply  defined,  but  with 
its  upper  or  dorsal  edge  much  indented  with  the  body  color  and  irregularly 
extending  to  a  much  broken,  narrow,  lateral  stripe  of  cream-colored  spots  a 
little  above  the  spiracles.  Most  of  these  characteristic  markings  are  well 
shown  in  the  figures  at  f  and  g,  plate  i.  The  caterpillars  spin  a  very  thin 
cocoon  of  silk  about  themselves  in  their  earthen  cell  before  they  change  to 
pupae. 

The  brown  pupa,  shown  enlarged  at  c ,  plate  i,  resembles  in  size  and 
general  appearance  that  of  X.  laticinerea  shown  at  c  and  d,  plate  2.  But  a 
close  examination  of  the  caudal  end  of  the  pupae  of  these  two  species  reveals 
striking  differences.  These  are  well  shown  in  the  enlarged  figures  of  this 
portion  of  the  pupae  at  d,  plate  1,  and  e,  plate  2. 

2.  Xylina  laticinerea  Grt. 

This  green  fruit  worm  was  represented  among  the  specimens 
received  from  each  locality,  and,  in  one  or  two  instances;  it 
seemed  to  be  equally  as  numerous  as  the  proceeding  species. 

The  moth  of  X.  laticinerea  was  first  described  and  named  in  1874  from  a 
Massachusetts  specimen.  The  insect  is  illustrated  on  plate  2,  figures  f  and 
g  representing  the  moth,  natural  size  and  twice  natural  size,  respectively. 
It  seems  to  differ  from  the  moth  of  X.  antennata  in  the  ground  color  of  the 
wings  being  of  a  more  decidedly  ash-gray  color  and  the  markings  are 
possibly  a  little  more  distinct ;  a  comparison  of  the  figures  of  the  two  species, 
shown  on  plates  1  and  2  will  show  that  they'are  very  similar.  There  may  be 
antennal  and  genitalic  differences  in  the  males  also  ;  having  bred  no  males 
of  laticinerea ,  we  cannot  verify  this. 

Nothing  has  been  recorded  respecting  the  life-history  or  earlier  stages  of 
this  species  ;  the  caterpiller  described  by  Mr.  Edwards  (Papilio,  III,  135)  as 
belonging  to  this  insect,  was  certainly  another  species,  probably  X.  grotei , 
as  we  shall  see  later.  Our  observations  show  that  the  caterpillars  appear  in 
May  with,  and  have  the  same  habits  as,  those  of  X.  antennata.  Pupation 
takes  place  in  earthen  cells  in  the  soil  about  the  same  time  in  June.  But  the 
caterpillars  of  X.  laticinerea  spin  no  trace  of  a  cocoon.  The  insect  remains 
in  the  pupa  state  until  fall  when  some  of  them  give  forth  the  moth,  but  in 
our  cages  most  of  the  pupae  are  now  hibernating  ;  one  moth  emerged  Sep- 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


5G 


tember  26th.  The  following  table  made  up  from  the  recorded  captures  of 
the  moths  of  this  species,  shows  that  they  fly  both  in  the  fall  and  spring, 
many  of  them  doubtless  hibernating  and  others  not  emerging  until  spring. 


Place. 

Dates. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y . 

Sept.  29,  30  ;  Oct.  4,  6,  10,  19,  21,  25. 

Saranac  Take,  N.  Y . 

April. 

Orillia,  Ont . 

September  15. 

St.  Catherines,  Ont . 

Oct.  8  ;  May  2. 

Newton,  Mass . 

Sept,  and  Oct. 

Evanston,  Ill . 

Nov.  and  April. 

Minnesota . 

Sept.  16;  Oct.  3  ;  Apr.  21,22. 

A  comparison  of  the  figures  of  the  caterpillar  of  this  species  at  a  and  b, 
plate  2,  with  those  of  the  other  two  species  represented  on  plates  1  and  3  will 
at  once  show  that  it  is  quite  different  from  either  of  the  others.  It  is  of  a 
light  apple-green  color,  sometimes  with  a  slight  bluish  cast ;  the  head  is 
sometimes  a  little  lighter,  and  the  venter  is  but  slightly  darker.  The  whole 
body  is  very  finely  mottled  with  minute  cream-colored  spots,  and  the  hair¬ 
bearing  spots  are  small  and  not  very  distinct.  There  is  a  narrow  cream- 
colored  mesal  stripe  on  the  dorsum,  wider  near  the  middle  of  the  body  ;  the 
narrow  light  lemon-yellow  stigmatal  stripe,  widest  towards  the  extremities, 
runs  just  above  the  spiracles,  except  in  the  case  of  the  spiracle  nearest  each 
extremity  where  it  runs  below  ;  there  is  also  a  very  narrow,  much  broken, 
sometimes  quite  indistinct,  cream-colored  stripe  midway  between  the  mesal 
and  stigmatal  stripes.  On  some  specimens  the  yellow  stigmatal  stripe  was 
bordered  above  with  a  blackish  shade,  as  shown  on  the  parasitized  carterpil- 
lar  at  a ,  plate  4.  A  comparison  of  this  description  of  the  caterpillar  with 
that  of  Mr.  Edwards,  referred  to  above,  will  show  that  they  cannot  apply  to 
the  same  insect ;  for  the  lemon-yellow  stripe  is  narrow  and  above  the 
spiracles,  and  not  broad  and  below ,  as  in  Mr.  Edwards’  description. 

The  pupa  of  this  species  is  not  formed  within  a  cocoon,  and  also  differs 
from  that  of  X  antennata  very  strikingly  in  the  structure  of  its  caudal  seg¬ 
ment,  as  is  well  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  enlarged  figures  of  this  part  at 
d ,  plate  1,  and  e ,  plate  2.  Otherwise  the  pupae  are  quite  similar,  as  the 
enlarged  figures  ate,  plate  1,  and  d,  plate  2  show. 

Although  the  moths  of  X.  antennata  and  X.  laticinerea  are  distinguished 
from  each  other  with  considerable  difficulty,  the  above  descriptions  and  the 
accompanying  figures  show  that  the  caterpillars  and  pupae  of  the  two  species 
are  quite  distinct  and  can  be  easily  separated.  Thus  both  insects  are  distinct 
and  valid  species. 


Bulletin  123. 


518 

3.  Xylina  grotei  Riley. 

Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  green  fruit  worms  sent  us  proved 
to  be  of  this  species. 

The  moth  was  first  described  as  X.  cinerosa  in  1879,  from  New  York  state 
specimens.  In  1882,  Dr.  Riley  pointed  out  that  this  name  could  not  be  used, 
as  another  insect  belonging  to  the  same  genus  had  received  the  same  name 
years  before.  He  suggested  the  name  X.  grotei  instead,  but  thought  the 
insect  was  only  a  variety  of  X.  antennata.  Nothing  has  since  been  recorded 
about  the  species. 

A  comparison  of  the  figures  of  the  moth  at  a  and  b,  plate  3  with  the  figures 
of  the  moths  of  the  other  two  species  on  plates  1  and  2  will  show  how  re¬ 
markably  similar  the  insects  are  in  the  adult  state.  The  moths  of  X.  grotei 
have  a  much  brighter  appearance  and  their  markings  are  more  sharply  de¬ 
fined  than  in  either  of  the  other  two  species.  The  ground  color  of  their 
wings  is  much  like  that  of  X.  antennata ,  but  there  is  a  decided  difference  in 
the  male  genitalia  of  these  two  species,  as  is  shown  in  the  enlarged  figures 
at  f  and^-,  plate  3.  Our  specimens  of  the  moths  of  X.  grotei  emerged  from 
the  1 8th  to  the  26th  of  September.  We  have  found  no  recorded  captures  of 
this  species.  Doubtless  its  life  history  is  very  similar  to  that  of  X.  antennata. 

The  caterpillars  of  X.  grotei  so  closely  resemble  those  of  X.  antennata 
that  we  did  not  notice  their  characteristic  differences  until  the  moths  which 
appeared  in  one  of  our  cages  were  determined  as  two  distinct  species  ;  and 
until  we  had  seen  the  only  caterpillar  preserved  by  Dr.  Riley  when  he  studied 
these  green  fruit  worms  in  1870.  The  caterpillar  at  the  left  in  the  frontis¬ 
piece  (the  same  one  is  shown  at  <?,  plate  3)  is  of  this  species  ;  figures  c  and*/, 
plate  3,  are  reproductions  of  photographs  taken  twice  natural  size  from  Dr. 
Riley’s  preserved  (blown)  specimen.  Compare  these  figures  with  those  of 
the  caterpillars  of  X.  antennata  at  e,f  and  g,  plate  1.  The  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  broad  stigmatal  stripes  is  readily  seen  ;  in  X.  grotei ,  both  edges 
of  the  stripe  are  quite  sharply  defined,  while  in  X.  antennata  the  upper  edge 
is  much  broken  or  indented  with  the  body  color.  Another  difference  readily 
seen  on  the  specimens,  but  not  so  evident  in  the  figures,  is  that  the  subdorsal 
stripes  in  X.  grotei  are  not  so  continuous  as  in  X.  antennata ,  but  are  made  up 
of  three  or  four  irregular  spots  on  each  segment.  Otherwise,  as  regards  gen¬ 
eral  color,  size,  etc.,  the  caterpillars  of  these  two  species  are  practically  alike. 
Dr.  Riley’s  description  of  his  green  fruit  worm  agrees  with  his  preserved  speci¬ 
men  of  X.  grotei,  and  he  states  that  the  moth  of  this  species  (a  variety,  he 
then  considered  it)  “  heads  his  series.”  Mr.  Edwards  described  a  caterpillar 
of  what  he  supposed  was  X.  laticinerea ,  but  his  description  applies  to  the 
caterpiliars  of  X.  grotei ,  and  not  to  those  of  either  of  the  other  two  species 
under  discussion. 

The  indications  are  that  the  caterpillars  of  X.  grotei  spin  slight  cocoons 
within  which  they  change  to  pupae,  as  in  the  case  of  X.  antennata .  But  we 
cannot  say  whether  there  are  any  differelices  in  the  pupae  of  these  two  species 
or  not. 


PIRATE  III. — Xylina  grotei  Riley,  a,  the  moth ,  natural  size  ;  b,  the  moth ,  twice  natural 
size  ;  c  and  d'  the  caterpillar ,  dorsal  and  lateral  views ,  twice  natural  size  ;  e,  the  cater¬ 
pillar  at  work,  natural  size  ;  f,  genitalia  (right  half,)  of  the  male  of  Xylina  grotei,  much 
enlarged  ;  g,  genitalia  ( right  half,)  of  the  male  of  Xylina  antennata ,  much  enlarged. 


PLATE  IV. — Some  of  the  enemies  of  green  fruit  worms,  a,  caterpillar  of  Xylina  laticin- 
erea  from  which  the  parasitic  grub  of  Meteorus  hyphantriae  has  just  emerged  and  is 
spinning  its  cocoon ,  natural  size  ;  b,  two  of  the  curious  suspended  cocoons  of  Meteorus 
hyphantriae ,  enlarged  ;  c,  the  adult  parasite  ( Meteorus  hyphantriae ),  much  enlarged  ; 
d,  a  caterpillar  of  Xylina  lacticinerea  killed  by  the  parasitic  grub  of  Mesochorus  agilis 
which  has  spun  its  cocoon  beneath  the  caterpillar ,  fastening  the  latter  to  the  leaf ,  natural 
size. 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


5i9 


Natural  Enemies. 

Fortunately  for  the  fruit  grower,  these  green  fruit  worms  have 
several  deadly  enemies.  One  correspondent  reported  that  red- 
winged  black  birds  had  been  seen  either  catching  and  eating  the 
caterpillars,  or  carrying  them  away  to  feed  their  young.  Doubt¬ 
less  other  birds  which  frequent  orchards  also  include  the  worms 
in  their  menu. 

The  indications  are,  however,  that  the  caterpillars  suffered 
much  more  from  the  attacks  of  at  least  two  minute  foes  among 
their  own  kind.  From  the  material  sent  to  the  insectary,  we  bred 
two  minute  hymenopterous  parasites.  Apparently  the  most  nu¬ 
merous  and  efficient  one  of  these  little  enemies  is  shown  much 
enlarged  at  c,  plate  4  ;  they  are  only  about  1-5  of  an  inch  in 
length.  It  was  named  Meteorus  hyphantrics  by  Dr.  Riley  in  1886. 
That  year  it  did  valiant  work  in  checking  the  fall  web-worms 
(. Hyphantria  cunea).  Its  method  of  working  is  to  deftly  insert  an 
egg  into  the  body  of  an  unwary  and  defenceless  caterpillar.  A 
grub  hatches  from  this  egg  and  proceeds  to  live  on  the  internal 
fats  and  juices  of  its  host — the  caterpillar.  The  host  leads  a 
lingering  existence,  and  finally  a  short  time  before  death  ensues, 
the  parasitic  grub  bores  its  way  out  through  the  skin  of  its  host 
and  proceeds  to  spin  the  curious  brown  cocoon,  shown  natural 
size  at  a ,  and  much  enlarged  at  b ,  plate  4.  Just  how  the  grub 
manages  to  make  these  suspended  cocoons  is  not  known.  Ap¬ 
parently  it  first  spins  out  the  large  suspending  silken  thread 
and  then  at  the  end  of  this,  holding  on  in  some  manner 
(perhaps  by  its  jaws)  it  proceeds  to  spin  about  itself  a  coarse, 
loose  cradle  of  the  same  kind  of  silk.  When  secure  inside  this 
cradle  it  lets  go  its  hold  from  the  suspensory  thread  and  spins 
its  soft,  dense,  fine-threaded  cocoon.  These  cocoons  are  attached 
to  any  part  of  the  tree  and  the  threads  that  suspend  them  vary  in 
length  from  one-half  an  inch  to  four  inches.  From  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  (in  J une)  after  the  grub  spins  its  cocoon  the  transfor¬ 
mation  through  the  pupal  to  the  adult  stage  takes  place.  The 
little  four-winged  foe  then  emerges  through  a  round  hole  made  in 
the  end  of  the  cocoon,  by  deftly  gnawing  around  the  lower  end 
and  thus  detaching  a  neatly  fitting  cap. 


520 


Bulletin  121. 


The  other  little  enemy  of  these  green  fruit  worms  is  about  the 
same  size  as,  and  looks  something  like  the  one  just  described.  It 
also  works  inside  the  caterpillars  in  the  same  manner,  gradually 
sapping  out  their  life.  But  instead  of  undergoing  its  further 
transformations  in  a  suspended  cocoon,  it  bores  its  way  out  of  the 
caterpillar  and  crawling  beneath  its  host,  it  proceeds  to  fasten  the 
latter  down  to  a  leaf  with  its  cocoon.  This  state  of  affairs  is  well 
shown  at  d,  in  plate  4.  The  two-thirds  grown  caterpillar  is  pin¬ 
ioned  to  the  leaf  by  the  cocoon  of  the  grub  which  caused  it  to  die 
a  lingering  death.  This  little  parasitic  foe  is  known  to  science  as 
Mesochorus  agilis. 

Doubtless  the  efficient  work  of  these  little  parasitic  insects  and 
the  birds  has  been  one  of  the  main  reasons  why  these  green  fruit 
worms  have  troubled  New  York  fruit  growers  only  at  long 
intervals. 

How  to  Combat  these  Fruit-Bating  Caterpillars. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  caterpillars  will  not  often  visit  our 
orchards  in  destructive  numbers,  for  the  past  season’s  experience 
has  shown  that  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  check  their  ravages.  It 
would  seem  at  first  thought  that  the  pests  might  be  readily  killed 
with  a  Paris  green  spray.  But  several  of  our  correspondents,  who 
have  a  reputation  for  thoroughness  in  spraying  and  who  success¬ 
fully  check  fungi  and  other  insects,  reported  that  all  of  their 
efforts  in  this  line  did  not  noticeably  diminish  the  crop  of  these 
caterpillars.  Some  sprayed  with  the  poison  three  or  four  times 
during  the  time  the  worms  were  at  work.  Mr.  Albert  Wood, 
Carlton,  N.  Y.,  collected  60  live  worms  and  placed  20  on  each  of 
three  large  branches  loaded  with  young  apples  ;  the  branches  were 
cut  off  and  nailed  up  somewhere.  One  branch  was  sprayed  with 
kerosene  emulsion,  one  with  arsenate  of  lead,  and  the  third  with 
hellebore.  Two  days  after,  the  worms  were  all  lively  and  well, 
and  had  kept  on  eating  apples.  The  orchard  from  which  these 
worms  were  taken  had  received  three  thorough  applications  of 
Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green. 

It  is  possible  that  one  or  two  thorough  applications  of  Paris 
green  made  before  the  blossoms  open,  when  the  caterpillars  are 
small  and  feeding  on  the  buds  and  leaves,  might  kill  many  of 


Green  Fruit  Worms. 


521 


them.  However,  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  our  corres¬ 
pondents  seems  to  be  that  they  cannot  be  effectually  reached  with 
a  spray  at  any  time.  It  is  probably  true  that  it  is  practicably  im¬ 
possible  to  sufficiently  coat  the  outside  of  a  young  apple  with  a 
poison  spray,  so  that  one  of  the  caterpillars  would  get  enough  to 
kill  it  when  it  eats  into  the  fruit.  For  this  reason  we  concur  in 
in  the  belief  that  the  worms  cannot  be  effectually  checked  with  a 
spray  of  any  kind  after  the  fruit  gets  large  enough  for  them  to 
feed  upon  it.  But  the  young  worms  must  feed  upon  the  buds  and 
leaves  for  a  time  before  the  fruit  gets  large  enough,  and  it  seems 
plausible  that  a  Paris  green  spray,  thoroughly  applied  at  least 
once  before  the  trees  blossom,  must  result  in  the  death  of  many 
of  the  worms.  We  would  like  to  see  this  tried,  but  there  is  one 
difficulty  which  will  always  arise  ;  that  is,  one  can  rarely,  if  ever, 
tell  whether  the  insects  are  present  in  his  orchard  in  destructive 
numbers  until  they  begin  to  eat  the  fruit.  It  is  always  a  good 
practice,  however,  to  spray  orchard  fruits  at  least  once  (where  bud 
moths  or  case-bearers  are  thick,  twice )  before  the  blossoms  open 
with  the  combined  Bordeaux  and  Paris  green. 

One  correspondent  writes  that  the  caterpillars  were  the  most 
numerous  in  a  cultivated  orchard.  This  does  not  agree  with  the 
observations  of  Professor  Comstock  made  during  the  outbreak  in 
1877  ;  he  states  that  the  fruit  was  injured  most  in  those  orchards 
which  were  not  cultivated.  This  fact  led  him  to  recommend  that 
many  of  the  insects  could  be  destroyed  by  the  cultivation  of  the 
orchards  during  July  and  August,  while  the  worms  are  in  the 
ground  undergoing  their  transformations.  We  believe  that 
thorough  cultivation  during  the  summer  will  tend  to  greatly  lessen 
the  crop  of  green  fruit  worms  for  the  following  year. 

The  fact  is  reported  by  several  correspondents  that  the  cater¬ 
pillars  will  at  once  drop  to  the  ground  (not  spin  down  as  do 
canker  worms)  when  the  branch  upon  which  they  are  at  work  is 
unnaturally  jarred,  affords  a  vulnerable  point  of  attack  against 
them.  Why  not  jar  them  off  into  sheets  and  then  kill  them  ?  We 
saw  this  successfully  acccomplished  last  spring  in  an  orchard  near 
Geneva,  N.  Y.  “  Curculio  catchers.”  were  in  daily  use  to  catch 
this  most  serious  pest  of  stone-fruits,  and  hundreds  of  the  green 
fruit  worms  were  being  caught  at  the  same  time,  thus  “killing 


522 


Bulletin  123. 


two  birds  with  one  stone.”  On  young  trees  this  is  the  most 
efficient  and  practicable  method  of  fighting  these  caterpillars  we 
can  suggest.  Three  or  four  good  thorough  jarrings  ought  to 
effectually  check  their  ravages  for  the  season.  Of  course,  on  old, 
large  trees  it  would  be  a  big  undertaking  to  jar  them,  and  when 
there  was  such  a  setting  of  fruit  as  we  had  last  spring,  it  might 
not  pay  to  do  it.  But  with  a  small  setting  of  fruit,  it  might  mean 
the  difference  between  a  good  crop  and  no  crop  at  all,  in  which 
case  it  would  certainly  pay. 

In  brief  then,  our  recommendations  for  fighting  these  fruit¬ 
eating  caterpillars  are  to  always  spray  the  trees  at  least  once  with 
Paris  green  in  the  Bordeaux  mixture  before  the  blossoms  open, 
to  kill  some  of  the  worms  while  they  are  young.  L,ater  spray¬ 
ings,  after  the  fruit  is  large  enough  for  them  to  eat,  will  avail  but 
little.  After  the  fruit  sets,  the  only  successful  and  practicable 
way  to  fight  them  seems  to  be  by  jarring  them  off  into  sheets  or 
“  curculio  catchers”  and  killing  them.  Follow  this  with 
thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil  during  the  summer,  and  thus  kill 
many  of  the  insects  while  they  are  undergoing  their  transforma¬ 
tions  in  the  soil.  They  are  difficult  pests  to  fight,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  at  least  another  nineteen  years  may  pass  before  our 
fruit  growers  receive  a  third  visitation  from  destructive  numbers 
of  them.  Mark  Vernon  Slingerland. 


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